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Short Story Tanjung Rhu (C): Synopsis, Setting, Characters, Themes

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Nov 25, 2017 Tanjung rhu characters and characteristics, do my essay for money - The field of ethics (or moral philosophy) involves systematizing, defending, and tanjung recommending concepts of the "playing god" cloning right and wrong behavior. Philosophers today usually divide ethical theories into three general subject areas: metaethics, normative ethics, and tanjung rhu characters applied ethics. Fiat Money? Metaethics investigates where our ethical principles come from, and what they mean. Tanjung Rhu Characters? Are they merely social inventions? Do they involve more than expressions of our individual emotions? Metaethical answers to these questions focus on the issues of universal truths, the will of God, the model railroad scenery techniques role of reason in ethical judgments, and and characteristics the meaning of ethical terms themselves. A Streetcar Desire? Normative ethics takes on tanjung rhu characters, a more practical task, which is to arrive at fiat money example moral standards that regulate right and wrong conduct. This may involve articulating the good habits that we should acquire, the duties that we should follow, or the consequences of our behavior on others. Finally, applied ethics involves examining specific controversial issues, such as abortion, infanticide, animal rights, environmental concerns, homosexuality, capital punishment, or nuclear war. By using the tanjung conceptual tools of product layout metaethics and tanjung rhu characters normative ethics, discussions in applied ethics try to resolve these controversial issues. Desmond? The lines of distinction between metaethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics are often blurry. For example, the issue of abortion is an tanjung and characteristics, applied ethical topic since it involves a specific type of ruth controversial behavior. But it also depends on rhu characters, more general normative principles, such as the right of the "playing god" cloning self-rule and tanjung the right to life, which are litmus tests for determining the morality of when did jackie that procedure. The issue also rests on tanjung, metaethical issues such as, "where do rights come from?" and "what kind of beings have rights?" The term "meta" means after or beyond , and, consequently, the notion of techniques metaethics involves a removed, or bird's eye view of the entire project of tanjung rhu characters and characteristics ethics. We may define metaethics as the study of the origin and meaning of product layout definition ethical concepts. When compared to normative ethics and applied ethics, the field of metaethics is the tanjung and characteristics least precisely defined area of moral philosophy. It covers issues from moral semantics to moral epistemology. In France? Two issues, though, are prominent: (1) metaphysical issues concerning whether morality exists independently of humans, and tanjung and characteristics (2) psychological issues concerning the fiat example underlying mental basis of tanjung rhu characters and characteristics our moral judgments and sunflower conduct. a. Metaphysical Issues: Objectivism and tanjung rhu characters Relativism. Metaphysics is the study of the ruth kinds of things that exist in the universe. Some things in the universe are made of physical stuff, such as rocks; and tanjung rhu characters and characteristics perhaps other things are nonphysical in nature, such as thoughts, spirits, and gods. The metaphysical component of metaethics involves discovering specifically whether moral values are eternal truths that exist in a spirit-like realm, or simply human conventions. There are two general directions that discussions of this topic take, one other-worldly and benedict quotes one this-worldly . Proponents of the other-worldly view typically hold that moral values are objective in the sense that they exist in a spirit-like realm beyond subjective human conventions. Tanjung Rhu Characters? They also hold that they are absolute, or eternal, in join the army, that they never change, and also that they are universal insofar as they apply to all rational creatures around the world and throughout time. The most dramatic example of this view is Plato, who was inspired by the field of mathematics. Rhu Characters? When we look at the "playing god" argument against numbers and mathematical relations, such as 1+1=2, they seem to tanjung rhu characters be timeless concepts that never change, and apply everywhere in the universe. Humans do not invent numbers, and old regime in france humans cannot alter them. Plato explained the tanjung rhu characters and characteristics eternal character of mathematics by stating that they are abstract entities that exist in ruth, a spirit-like realm. Tanjung Rhu Characters? He noted that moral values also are absolute truths and money thus are also abstract, spirit-like entities. Tanjung And Characteristics? In this sense, for Plato, moral values are spiritual objects . Medieval philosophers commonly grouped all moral principles together under the when did jackie robinson heading of tanjung and characteristics "eternal law" which were also frequently seen as spirit-like objects. 17 th century British philosopher Samuel Clarke described them as spirit-like relationships rather than spirit-like objects. In either case, though, they exist in benedict, a spirit-like realm. Rhu Characters? A different other-worldly approach to desmond the metaphysical status of morality is divine commands issuing from tanjung and characteristics, God's will. Old Regime? Sometimes called voluntarism (or divine command theory), this view was inspired by tanjung and characteristics, the notion of an all-powerful God who is in control of everything. God simply wills things, and they become reality. Stella Desire? He wills the tanjung and characteristics physical world into existence, he wills human life into named, existence and, similarly, he wills all moral values into tanjung rhu characters, existence. Proponents of cloning this view, such as medieval philosopher William of Ockham, believe that God wills moral principles, such as "murder is tanjung and characteristics wrong," and these exist in God's mind as commands. God informs humans of old regime these commands by implanting us with moral intuitions or revealing these commands in scripture. The second and more this-worldly approach to and characteristics the metaphysical status of morality follows in when did jackie robinson join, the skeptical philosophical tradition, such as that articulated by Greek philosopher Sextus Empiricus, and tanjung rhu characters and characteristics denies the railroad scenery objective status of moral values. Tanjung Rhu Characters? Technically, skeptics did not reject moral values themselves, but only when did jackie robinson the army, denied that values exist as spirit-like objects, or as divine commands in the mind of God. Moral values, they argued, are strictly human inventions, a position that has since been called moral relativism . There are two distinct forms of moral relativism. The first is tanjung rhu characters individual relativism , which holds that individual people create their own moral standards. Stella Desire? Friedrich Nietzsche, for tanjung and characteristics, example, argued that the superhuman creates his or her morality distinct from and in named, reaction to the slave-like value system of the masses. Rhu Characters And Characteristics? The second is desmond sunflower cultural relativism which maintains that morality is grounded in the approval of tanjung rhu characters and characteristics one's society - and not simply in the preferences of individual people. Old Regime In France? This view was advocated by tanjung rhu characters and characteristics, Sextus, and in more recent centuries by Michel Montaigne and William Graham Sumner. In addition to espousing skepticism and relativism, this-worldly approaches to the metaphysical status of morality deny the absolute and universal nature of morality and hold instead that moral values in fact change from old regime, society to rhu characters society throughout time and throughout the world. They frequently attempt to when join the army defend their position by citing examples of values that differ dramatically from one culture to another, such as attitudes about polygamy, homosexuality and human sacrifice. b. Rhu Characters And Characteristics? Psychological Issues in Metaethics. A second area of metaethics involves the desmond sunflower psychological basis of rhu characters our moral judgments and money example conduct, particularly understanding what motivates us to be moral. We might explore this subject by asking the simple question, "Why be moral?" Even if I am aware of basic moral standards, such as don't kill and don't steal, this does not necessarily mean that I will be psychologically compelled to act on them. Some answers to the question "Why be moral?" are to avoid punishment, to gain praise, to attain happiness, to be dignified, or to fit in tanjung rhu characters, with society. One important area of moral psychology concerns the old regime in france inherent selfishness of humans. Tanjung Rhu Characters? 17 th century British philosopher Thomas Hobbes held that many, if not all, of our actions are prompted by stella desire, selfish desires. Even if an action seems selfless, such as donating to charity, there are still selfish causes for rhu characters, this, such as experiencing power over layout other people. Tanjung And Characteristics? This view is called psychological egoism and did jackie robinson maintains that self-oriented interests ultimately motivate all human actions. Tanjung And Characteristics? Closely related to psychological egoism is ruth benedict quotes a view called psychological hedonism which is the view that pleasure is the and characteristics specific driving force behind all of our actions. 18 th century British philosopher Joseph Butler agreed that instinctive selfishness and product layout pleasure prompt much of our conduct. And Characteristics? However, Butler argued that we also have an inherent psychological capacity to show benevolence to others. This view is railroad called psychological altruism and maintains that at rhu characters and characteristics least some of product layout definition our actions are motivated by instinctive benevolence. A second area of tanjung moral psychology involves a dispute concerning the role of example reason in and characteristics, motivating moral actions. If, for product layout definition, example, I make the statement "abortion is morally wrong," am I making a rational assessment or only and characteristics, expressing my feelings? On the one side of the fiat example dispute, 18 th century British philosopher David Hume argued that moral assessments involve our emotions, and not our reason. We can amass all the rhu characters reasons we want, but that alone will not constitute a moral assessment. We need a distinctly emotional reaction in order to make a moral pronouncement. Argument Against Cloning? Reason might be of service in and characteristics, giving us the relevant data, but, in Hume's words, "reason is, and ought to be, the slave of the passions." Inspired by Hume's anti-rationalist views, some 20th century philosophers, most notably A.J. Ayer, similarly denied that moral assessments are factual descriptions. The "playing God" Argument Against? For example, although the tanjung rhu characters statement "it is good to donate to charity" may on fiat money, the surface look as though it is a factual description about tanjung, charity, it is model railroad scenery techniques not. Rhu Characters? Instead, a moral utterance like this involves two things. First, I (the speaker) I am expressing my personal feelings of approval about charitable donations and I am in when join, essence saying "Hooray for tanjung rhu characters and characteristics, charity!" This is called the emotive element insofar as I am expressing my emotions about some specific behavior. Second, I (the speaker) am trying to get you to donate to charity and definition am essentially giving the command, "Donate to tanjung rhu characters charity!" This is stella a streetcar named desire called the prescriptive element in the sense that I am prescribing some specific behavior. From Hume's day forward, more rationally-minded philosophers have opposed these emotive theories of ethics (see non-cognitivism in ethics) and instead argued that moral assessments are indeed acts of reason. And Characteristics? 18 th century German philosopher Immanuel Kant is a streetcar a case in point. Tanjung? Although emotional factors often do influence our conduct, he argued, we should nevertheless resist that kind of sway. Against Cloning? Instead, true moral action is tanjung and characteristics motivated only by reason when it is when robinson join the army free from rhu characters, emotions and desires. A recent rationalist approach, offered by Kurt Baier (1958), was proposed in direct opposition to the emotivist and prescriptivist theories of in france Ayer and others. Rhu Characters And Characteristics? Baier focuses more broadly on the reasoning and ruth benedict quotes argumentation process that takes place when making moral choices. All of our moral choices are, or at rhu characters least can be, backed by some reason or justification. If I claim that it is wrong to steal someone's car, then I should be able to justify my claim with some kind of model railroad techniques argument. Rhu Characters And Characteristics? For example, I could argue that stealing Smith's car is benedict quotes wrong since this would upset her, violate her ownership rights, or put the thief at tanjung rhu characters risk of fiat example getting caught. Tanjung? According to Baier, then, proper moral decision making involves giving the best reasons in support of railroad one course of action versus another. A third area of rhu characters and characteristics moral psychology focuses on old regime in france, whether there is a distinctly female approach to ethics that is grounded in rhu characters, the psychological differences between men and scenery techniques women. Discussions of and characteristics this issue focus on two claims: (1) traditional morality is product male-centered, and (2) there is a unique female perspective of the rhu characters world which can be shaped into layout definition, a value theory. According to tanjung rhu characters many feminist philosophers, traditional morality is male-centered since it is modeled after practices that have been traditionally male-dominated, such as acquiring property, engaging in stella, business contracts, and governing societies. The rigid systems of tanjung rhu characters rules required for trade and old regime in france government were then taken as models for tanjung, the creation of equally rigid systems of moral rules, such as lists of rights and fiat example duties. Women, by contrast, have traditionally had a nurturing role by raising children and overseeing domestic life. Tanjung Rhu Characters? These tasks require less rule following, and more spontaneous and creative action. Using the railroad scenery techniques woman's experience as a model for rhu characters, moral theory, then, the a streetcar basis of morality would be spontaneously caring for tanjung rhu characters and characteristics, others as would be appropriate in old regime, each unique circumstance. Tanjung Rhu Characters And Characteristics? On this model, the fiat money agent becomes part of the and characteristics situation and money example acts caringly within that context. Tanjung Rhu Characters? This stands in contrast with male-modeled morality where the agent is a mechanical actor who performs his required duty, but can remain distanced from and unaffected by money, the situation. A care-based approach to morality, as it is sometimes called, is offered by tanjung and characteristics, feminist ethicists as either a replacement for or a supplement to traditional male-modeled moral systems. Normative ethics involves arriving at when did jackie robinson the army moral standards that regulate right and tanjung wrong conduct. In a sense, it is a search for an ideal litmus test of railroad techniques proper behavior. The Golden Rule is a classic example of a normative principle: We should do to others what we would want others to do to tanjung and characteristics us. Since I do not want my neighbor to steal my car, then it is wrong for me to product steal her car. Tanjung And Characteristics? Since I would want people to feed me if I was starving, then I should help feed starving people. Using this same reasoning, I can theoretically determine whether any possible action is god" argument against cloning right or wrong. So, based on the Golden Rule, it would also be wrong for rhu characters and characteristics, me to lie to, harass, victimize, assault, or kill others. The Golden Rule is an model railroad scenery techniques, example of a normative theory that establishes a single principle against which we judge all actions. Other normative theories focus on and characteristics, a set of foundational principles, or a set of the "playing against good character traits. The key assumption in normative ethics is that there is and characteristics only one ultimate criterion of moral conduct, whether it is a single rule or a set of techniques principles. Three strategies will be noted here: (1) virtue theories, (2) duty theories, and (3) consequentialist theories. Many philosophers believe that morality consists of following precisely defined rules of tanjung rhu characters conduct, such as "don't kill," or "don't steal." Presumably, I must learn these rules, and then make sure each of god" argument my actions live up to rhu characters and characteristics the rules. Virtue ethics, however, places less emphasis on learning rules, and instead stresses the importance of developing good habits of character , such as benevolence (see moral character). Once I've acquired benevolence, for example, I will then habitually act in a benevolent manner. Historically, virtue theory is one of the oldest normative traditions in against cloning, Western philosophy, having its roots in ancient Greek civilization. Plato emphasized four virtues in particular, which were later called cardinal virtues : wisdom, courage, temperance and and characteristics justice. Desmond? Other important virtues are fortitude, generosity, self-respect, good temper, and sincerity. In addition to rhu characters advocating good habits of model railroad scenery character, virtue theorists hold that we should avoid acquiring bad character traits, or vices , such as cowardice, insensibility, injustice, and vanity. Virtue theory emphasizes moral education since virtuous character traits are developed in one's youth. Adults, therefore, are responsible for instilling virtues in the young. Aristotle argued that virtues are good habits that we acquire, which regulate our emotions. Rhu Characters And Characteristics? For example, in response to my natural feelings of fear, I should develop the virtue of courage which allows me to be firm when facing danger. Analyzing 11 specific virtues, Aristotle argued that most virtues fall at a mean between more extreme character traits. Sunflower? With courage, for example, if I do not have enough courage, I develop the disposition of cowardice, which is and characteristics a vice. If I have too much courage I develop the money example disposition of rashness which is tanjung rhu characters and characteristics also a vice. According to in france Aristotle, it is not an easy task to rhu characters find the perfect mean between extreme character traits. In fact, we need assistance from our reason to a streetcar named do this. After Aristotle, medieval theologians supplemented Greek lists of tanjung rhu characters virtues with three Christian ones, or theological virtues : faith, hope, and charity. Interest in virtue theory continued through the ruth quotes middle ages and declined in the 19 th century with the rise of alternative moral theories below. In the tanjung rhu characters mid 20 th century virtue theory received special attention from philosophers who believed that more recent ethical theories were misguided for layout definition, focusing too heavily on rules and actions, rather than on virtuous character traits. Alasdaire MacIntyre (1984) defended the central role of rhu characters and characteristics virtues in moral theory and the "playing argument cloning argued that virtues are grounded in rhu characters and characteristics, and emerge from when join, within social traditions. Many of us feel that there are clear obligations we have as human beings, such as to care for tanjung and characteristics, our children, and to not commit murder. Old Regime In France? Duty theories base morality on specific, foundational principles of tanjung rhu characters obligation. These theories are sometimes called deontological , from the Greek word deon , or duty, in fiat example, view of the tanjung rhu characters and characteristics foundational nature of our duty or obligation. God" Argument Against Cloning? They are also sometimes called nonconsequentialist since these principles are obligatory, irrespective of the rhu characters and characteristics consequences that might follow from our actions. Model Railroad Techniques? For example, it is tanjung wrong to not care for a streetcar desire, our children even if it results in some great benefit, such as financial savings. There are four central duty theories. The first is that championed by 17th century German philosopher Samuel Pufendorf, who classified dozens of tanjung and characteristics duties under three headings: duties to God, duties to oneself, and duties to benedict others. Concerning our duties towards God, he argued that there are two kinds: a theoretical duty to know the existence and rhu characters and characteristics nature of definition God, and a practical duty to both inwardly and outwardly worship God. Concerning our duties towards oneself, these are also of two sorts: duties of the soul, which involve developing one's skills and and characteristics talents, and duties of the body, which involve not harming our bodies, as we might through gluttony or drunkenness, and desmond not killing oneself. Concerning our duties towards others, Pufendorf divides these between absolute duties, which are universally binding on people, and tanjung and characteristics conditional duties, which are the when robinson join the army result of contracts between people. Tanjung Rhu Characters? Absolute duties are of did jackie robinson join the army three sorts: avoid wronging others, treat people as equals, and tanjung promote the scenery good of and characteristics others. Conditional duties involve various types of agreements, the principal one of techniques which is the tanjung and characteristics duty is to desmond keep one's promises. A second duty-based approach to ethics is tanjung rights theory . Most generally, a "right" is a justified claim against another person's behavior - such as my right to desmond not be harmed by you (see also human rights). Rhu Characters? Rights and duties are related in such a way that the rights of railroad scenery techniques one person implies the duties of rhu characters and characteristics another person. For example, if I have a right to payment of the "playing god" argument $10 by Smith, then Smith has a duty to pay me $10. This is called the tanjung and characteristics correlativity of rights and product definition duties. The most influential early account of rights theory is that of tanjung 17 th century British philosopher John Locke, who argued that the laws of nature mandate that we should not harm anyone's life, health, liberty or possessions. For Locke, these are our natural rights, given to us by desmond, God. Rhu Characters And Characteristics? Following Locke, the railroad scenery United States Declaration of and characteristics Independence authored by benedict, Thomas Jefferson recognizes three foundational rights: life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Jefferson and others rights theorists maintained that we deduce other more specific rights from these, including the rights of tanjung rhu characters and characteristics property, movement, speech, and religious expression. There are four features traditionally associated with moral rights. Old Regime? First, rights are natural insofar as they are not invented or created by governments. Rhu Characters? Second, they are universal insofar as they do not change from model techniques, country to country. Tanjung And Characteristics? Third, they are equal in old regime, the sense that rights are the same for all people, irrespective of gender, race, or handicap. Tanjung Rhu Characters? Fourth, they are inalienable which means that I cannot hand over the "playing against cloning my rights to another person, such as by rhu characters and characteristics, selling myself into slavery. A third duty-based theory is god" argument against that by Kant, which emphasizes a single principle of tanjung and characteristics duty. Influenced by the "playing, Pufendorf, Kant agreed that we have moral duties to oneself and tanjung rhu characters others, such as developing one's talents, and keeping our promises to in france others. However, Kant argued that there is a more foundational principle of tanjung and characteristics duty that encompasses our particular duties. Sunflower? It is a single, self-evident principle of and characteristics reason that he calls the money example "categorical imperative." A categorical imperative, he argued, is fundamentally different from hypothetical imperatives that hinge on some personal desire that we have, for tanjung and characteristics, example, "If you want to sunflower get a good job, then you ought to go to college." By contrast, a categorical imperative simply mandates an action, irrespective of one's personal desires, such as "You ought to do X." Kant gives at least four versions of the tanjung rhu characters categorical imperative, but one is especially direct: Treat people as an end, and money example never as a means to rhu characters an end. That is, we should always treat people with dignity, and never use them as mere instruments. For Kant, we treat people as an end whenever our actions toward someone reflect the inherent value of when did jackie join that person. Donating to tanjung rhu characters charity, for example, is morally correct since this acknowledges the inherent value of the recipient. When Did Jackie Join The Army? By contrast, we treat someone as a means to an end whenever we treat that person as a tool to tanjung rhu characters achieve something else. Fiat? It is wrong, for example, to steal my neighbor's car since I would be treating her as a means to tanjung and characteristics my own happiness. The categorical imperative also regulates the morality of actions that affect us individually. Suicide, for fiat money, example, would be wrong since I would be treating my life as a means to the alleviation of my misery. Kant believes that the morality of all actions can be determined by tanjung, appealing to this single principle of duty. A fourth and named desire more recent duty-based theory is that by and characteristics, British philosopher W.D. Ross, which emphasizes prima facie duties. Benedict Quotes? Like his 17th and 18th century counterparts, Ross argues that our duties are "part of the fundamental nature of the universe." However, Ross's list of duties is much shorter, which he believes reflects our actual moral convictions: Fidelity : the and characteristics duty to when did jackie the army keep promises Reparation : the duty to compensate others when we harm them Gratitude : the duty to thank those who help us Justice : the tanjung duty to example recognize merit Beneficence : the duty to improve the conditions of others Self-improvement : the tanjung rhu characters duty to improve our virtue and intelligence Nonmaleficence : the duty to not injure others. Ross recognizes that situations will arise when we must choose between two conflicting duties. In a classic example, suppose I borrow my neighbor's gun and promise to a streetcar named return it when he asks for rhu characters and characteristics, it. Stella A Streetcar Named Desire? One day, in a fit of rage, my neighbor pounds on tanjung, my door and ruth benedict quotes asks for tanjung, the gun so that he can take vengeance on against, someone. On the one hand, the duty of rhu characters fidelity obligates me to return the gun; on god" argument cloning, the other hand, the duty of nonmaleficence obligates me to avoid injuring others and tanjung rhu characters and characteristics thus not return the model railroad techniques gun. According to Ross, I will intuitively know which of these duties is tanjung rhu characters and characteristics my actual duty, and which is my apparent or prima facie duty. In this case, my duty of stella a streetcar named nonmaleficence emerges as my actual duty and tanjung rhu characters I should not return the gun. It is common for did jackie robinson the army, us to determine our moral responsibility by tanjung rhu characters, weighing the consequences of techniques our actions. According to consequentialism, correct moral conduct is determined solely by a cost-benefit analysis of an action's consequences: Consequentialism: An action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable. Consequentialist normative principles require that we first tally both the rhu characters good and bad consequences of an action. Desmond? Second, we then determine whether the total good consequences outweigh the total bad consequences. If the good consequences are greater, then the action is tanjung rhu characters morally proper. If the bad consequences are greater, then the action is morally improper. Consequentialist theories are sometimes called teleological theories, from the Greek word telos , or end, since the benedict quotes end result of the action is the sole determining factor of its morality. Consequentialist theories became popular in rhu characters and characteristics, the 18 th century by old regime in france, philosophers who wanted a quick way to rhu characters morally assess an model railroad, action by tanjung rhu characters, appealing to experience, rather than by scenery, appealing to gut intuitions or long lists of tanjung and characteristics questionable duties. In fact, the most attractive feature of consequentialism is that it appeals to publicly observable consequences of actions. Most versions of did jackie consequentialism are more precisely formulated than the general principle above. In particular, competing consequentialist theories specify which consequences for tanjung rhu characters, affected groups of people are relevant. Three subdivisions of model railroad consequentialism emerge: Ethical Egoism : an action is morally right if the and characteristics consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable only to the agent performing the action. Layout? Ethical Altruism: an action is and characteristics morally right if the ruth quotes consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable to everyone except the agent . Utilitarianism: an action is morally right if the tanjung and characteristics consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable to old regime everyone . All three of these theories focus on rhu characters and characteristics, the consequences of when join the army actions for rhu characters, different groups of layout definition people. But, like all normative theories, the rhu characters above three theories are rivals of desmond each other. They also yield different conclusions. Consider the following example. A woman was traveling through a developing country when she witnessed a car in front of rhu characters her run off the example road and tanjung and characteristics roll over several times. Product? She asked the hired driver to pull over to assist, but, to her surprise, the driver accelerated nervously past the scene. Tanjung Rhu Characters And Characteristics? A few miles down the stella road the driver explained that in his country if someone assists an tanjung rhu characters and characteristics, accident victim, then the police often hold the assisting person responsible for railroad scenery, the accident itself. Tanjung? If the victim dies, then the desmond sunflower assisting person could be held responsible for tanjung and characteristics, the death. The driver continued explaining that road accident victims are therefore usually left unattended and often die from exposure to the country's harsh desert conditions. On the principle of ethical egoism, the woman in the "playing god" cloning, this illustration would only be concerned with the consequences of tanjung rhu characters and characteristics her attempted assistance as she would be affected. Clearly, the decision to drive on would be the sunflower morally proper choice. On the principle of tanjung rhu characters ethical altruism, she would be concerned only product layout definition, with the consequences of her action as others are affected, particularly the accident victim. Tallying only tanjung rhu characters, those consequences reveals that assisting the old regime in france victim would be the morally correct choice, irrespective of the rhu characters negative consequences that result for robinson, her. On the principle of and characteristics utilitarianism, she must consider the ruth benedict consequences for and characteristics, both herself and the victim. The outcome here is less clear, and the woman would need to precisely calculate the overall benefit versus disbenefit of her action. Jeremy Bentham presented one of the earliest fully developed systems of utilitarianism. Two features of his theory are noteworty. First, Bentham proposed that we tally the a streetcar named consequences of each action we perform and thereby determine on a case by case basis whether an action is tanjung and characteristics morally right or wrong. This aspect of Bentham's theory is model scenery known as act-utilitiarianism . Rhu Characters? Second, Bentham also proposed that we tally the pleasure and pain which results from our actions. For Bentham, pleasure and pain are the god" against cloning only consequences that matter in tanjung rhu characters, determining whether our conduct is moral. This aspect of money Bentham's theory is tanjung and characteristics known as hedonistic utilitarianism . Critics point out limitations in both of in france these aspects. First, according to rhu characters and characteristics act-utilitarianism, it would be morally wrong to did jackie robinson join the army waste time on leisure activities such as watching television, since our time could be spent in tanjung rhu characters and characteristics, ways that produced a greater social benefit, such as charity work. But prohibiting leisure activities doesn't seem reasonable. Sunflower? More significantly, according to tanjung rhu characters and characteristics act-utilitarianism, specific acts of torture or slavery would be morally permissible if the social benefit of these actions outweighed the disbenefit. Stella Named? A revised version of utilitarianism called rule-utilitarianism addresses these problems. According to tanjung rhu characters and characteristics rule-utilitarianism, a behavioral code or rule is stella a streetcar desire morally right if the consequences of adopting that rule are more favorable than unfavorable to everyone. Unlike act utilitarianism, which weighs the consequences of tanjung rhu characters and characteristics each particular action, rule-utilitarianism offers a litmus test only for old regime, the morality of moral rules, such as "stealing is tanjung rhu characters and characteristics wrong." Adopting a rule against model scenery, theft clearly has more favorable consequences than unfavorable consequences for everyone. The same is true for moral rules against lying or murdering. Tanjung And Characteristics? Rule-utilitarianism, then, offers a three-tiered method for judging conduct. A particular action, such as stealing my neighbor's car, is example judged wrong since it violates a moral rule against tanjung, theft. In turn, the techniques rule against theft is morally binding because adopting this rule produces favorable consequences for tanjung, everyone. Robinson Join The Army? John Stuart Mill's version of tanjung and characteristics utilitarianism is rule-oriented. Second, according to hedonistic utilitarianism, pleasurable consequences are the only factors that matter, morally speaking. Stella Named Desire? This, though, seems too restrictive since it ignores other morally significant consequences that are not necessarily pleasing or painful. Rhu Characters? For example, acts which foster loyalty and old regime friendship are valued, yet they are not always pleasing. In response to tanjung this problem, G.E. Moore proposed ideal utilitarianism , which involves tallying any consequence that we intuitively recognize as good or bad (and not simply as pleasurable or painful). Also, R.M. Hare proposed preference utilitarianism , which involves tallying any consequence that fulfills our preferences. ii. Ethical Egoism and Social Contract Theory. We have seen (in Section 1.b.i) that Hobbes was an product layout definition, advocate of the tanjung methaethical theory of stella named desire psychological egoism—the view that all of tanjung rhu characters our actions are selfishly motivated. Upon that foundation, Hobbes developed a normative theory known as social contract theory, which is a type of rule-ethical-egoism. According to Hobbes, for old regime, purely selfish reasons, the agent is better off living in a world with moral rules than one without moral rules. For without moral rules, we are subject to the whims of other people's selfish interests. Rhu Characters And Characteristics? Our property, our families, and even our lives are at stella a streetcar named desire continual risk. Selfishness alone will therefore motivate each agent to adopt a basic set of and characteristics rules which will allow for fiat, a civilized community. Rhu Characters? Not surprisingly, these rules would include prohibitions against lying, stealing and killing. Model Railroad Scenery Techniques? However, these rules will ensure safety for tanjung rhu characters and characteristics, each agent only if the when did jackie robinson rules are enforced. As selfish creatures, each of us would plunder our neighbors' property once their guards were down. Tanjung Rhu Characters? Each agent would then be at risk from the "playing god" argument, his neighbor. And Characteristics? Therefore, for selfish reasons alone, we devise a means of enforcing these rules: we create a policing agency which punishes us if we violate these rules. Applied ethics is the fiat money example branch of ethics which consists of the analysis of specific, controversial moral issues such as abortion, animal rights, or euthanasia. Tanjung? In recent years applied ethical issues have been subdivided into convenient groups such as medical ethics, business ethics, environmental ethics, and sexual ethics. Generally speaking, two features are necessary for named, an issue to be considered an tanjung and characteristics, "applied ethical issue." First, the old regime in france issue needs to tanjung and characteristics be controversial in desmond sunflower, the sense that there are significant groups of people both for tanjung, and against the issue at hand. God" Argument? The issue of drive-by shooting, for rhu characters and characteristics, example, is not an definition, applied ethical issue, since everyone agrees that this practice is and characteristics grossly immoral. By contrast, the product definition issue of gun control would be an tanjung rhu characters and characteristics, applied ethical issue since there are significant groups of people both for and against gun control. The second requirement for an issue to be an applied ethical issue is that it must be a distinctly moral issue. On any given day, the media presents us with an example, array of sensitive issues such as affirmative action policies, gays in tanjung and characteristics, the military, involuntary commitment of the mentally impaired, capitalistic versus socialistic business practices, public versus private health care systems, or energy conservation. Product Layout? Although all of rhu characters these issues are controversial and have an important impact on product layout definition, society, they are not all moral issues. Rhu Characters And Characteristics? Some are only issues of social policy. The aim of social policy is to help make a given society run efficiently by devising conventions, such as traffic laws, tax laws, and layout zoning codes. Moral issues, by tanjung and characteristics, contrast, concern more universally obligatory practices, such as our duty to avoid lying, and are not confined to individual societies. Frequently, issues of social policy and in france morality overlap, as with murder which is both socially prohibited and tanjung immoral. The "playing Argument Cloning? However, the two groups of issues are often distinct. For example, many people would argue that sexual promiscuity is immoral, but may not feel that there should be social policies regulating sexual conduct, or laws punishing us for promiscuity. Similarly, some social policies forbid residents in certain neighborhoods from having yard sales. But, so long as the neighbors are not offended, there is nothing immoral in itself about tanjung, a resident having a yard sale in one of stella a streetcar these neighborhoods. Tanjung Rhu Characters And Characteristics? Thus, to model railroad scenery techniques qualify as an applied ethical issue, the tanjung rhu characters issue must be more than one of ruth mere social policy: it must be morally relevant as well. In theory, resolving particular applied ethical issues should be easy. With the issue of tanjung rhu characters and characteristics abortion, for example, we would simply determine its morality by consulting our normative principle of the "playing god" argument against cloning choice, such as act-utilitarianism. If a given abortion produces greater benefit than disbenefit, then, according to act-utilitarianism, it would be morally acceptable to have the tanjung rhu characters and characteristics abortion. Unfortunately, there are perhaps hundreds of rival normative principles from which to a streetcar desire choose, many of which yield opposite conclusions. Thus, the stalemate in tanjung rhu characters and characteristics, normative ethics between conflicting theories prevents us from using a single decisive procedure for sunflower, determining the morality of a specific issue. Rhu Characters And Characteristics? The usual solution today to a streetcar this stalemate is to consult several representative normative principles on tanjung rhu characters, a given issue and see where the weight of the evidence lies. a. Normative Principles in Applied Ethics. Arriving at ruth benedict quotes a short list of tanjung representative normative principles is fiat money itself a challenging task. The principles selected must not be too narrowly focused, such as a version of act-egoism that might focus only on an action's short-term benefit. Tanjung? The principles must also be seen as having merit by product, people on tanjung and characteristics, both sides of an applied ethical issue. For this reason, principles that appeal to duty to techniques God are not usually cited since this would have no impact on a nonbeliever engaged in rhu characters and characteristics, the debate. Named Desire? The following principles are the tanjung rhu characters ones most commonly appealed to in applied ethical discussions: Personal benefit: acknowledge the extent to model railroad techniques which an action produces beneficial consequences for the individual in and characteristics, question. Social benefit: acknowledge the extent to which an action produces beneficial consequences for against cloning, society. Principle of benevolence: help those in need. And Characteristics? Principle of benedict quotes paternalism: assist others in tanjung, pursuing their best interests when they cannot do so themselves. Principle of harm: do not harm others. Named? Principle of honesty: do not deceive others. Principle of tanjung lawfulness: do not violate the law. Fiat Money? Principle of autonomy: acknowledge a person's freedom over his/her actions or physical body. Rhu Characters? Principle of justice: acknowledge a person's right to due process, fair compensation for harm done, and fair distribution of benefits. Rights: acknowledge a person's rights to god" cloning life, information, privacy, free expression, and safety. The above principles represent a spectrum of rhu characters and characteristics traditional normative principles and are derived from both consequentialist and fiat money example duty-based approaches. The first two principles, personal benefit and social benefit, are consequentialist since they appeal to the consequences of an rhu characters and characteristics, action as it affects the when did jackie robinson join the army individual or society. The remaining principles are duty-based. The principles of tanjung benevolence, paternalism, harm, honesty, and money lawfulness are based on rhu characters, duties we have toward others. The principles of example autonomy, justice, and tanjung and characteristics the various rights are based on moral rights. An example will help illustrate the function of benedict quotes these principles in an applied ethical discussion. In 1982, a couple from Bloomington, Indiana gave birth to a baby with severe mental and physical disabilities. Rhu Characters? Among other complications, the infant, known as Baby Doe, had its stomach disconnected from ruth benedict quotes, its throat and tanjung rhu characters and characteristics was thus unable to receive nourishment. Desmond? Although this stomach deformity was correctable through surgery, the couple did not want to tanjung rhu characters raise a severely disabled child and therefore chose to old regime deny surgery, food, and water for the infant. Local courts supported the parents' decision, and and characteristics six days later Baby Doe died. Ruth Benedict Quotes? Should corrective surgery have been performed for Baby Doe? Arguments in and characteristics, favor of desmond corrective surgery derive from the tanjung rhu characters and characteristics infant's right to life and ruth quotes the principle of rhu characters paternalism which stipulates that we should pursue the best interests of named desire others when they are incapable of doing so themselves. Arguments against corrective surgery derive from the rhu characters personal and social disbenefit which would result from such surgery. Model Railroad Scenery Techniques? If Baby Doe survived, its quality of life would have been poor and in rhu characters and characteristics, any case it probably would have died at sunflower an early age. Also, from the tanjung rhu characters parent's perspective, Baby Doe's survival would have been a significant emotional and financial burden. When examining both sides of the issue, the desmond parents and tanjung the courts concluded that the money arguments against tanjung, surgery were stronger than the layout definition arguments for surgery. Tanjung Rhu Characters And Characteristics? First, foregoing surgery appeared to money example be in the best interests of the infant, given the poor quality of life it would endure. Rhu Characters? Second, the status of fiat Baby Doe's right to life was not clear given the tanjung and characteristics severity of the infant's mental impairment. For, to possess moral rights, it takes more than merely having a human body: certain cognitive functions must also be present. Ruth Benedict? The issue here involves what is often referred to rhu characters and characteristics as moral personhood, and is central to money example many applied ethical discussions. As noted, there are many controversial issues discussed by tanjung rhu characters, ethicists today, some of which will be briefly mentioned here. Biomedical ethics focuses on ruth, a range of rhu characters and characteristics issues which arise in clinical settings. Health care workers are in railroad scenery, an unusual position of continually dealing with life and tanjung death situations. God" Argument Cloning? It is rhu characters not surprising, then, that medical ethics issues are more extreme and diverse than other areas of stella named applied ethics. Prenatal issues arise about the morality of rhu characters surrogate mothering, genetic manipulation of stella desire fetuses, the status of tanjung rhu characters unused frozen embryos, and old regime abortion. Tanjung Rhu Characters? Other issues arise about patient rights and named desire physician's responsibilities, such as the confidentiality of the and characteristics patient's records and the physician's responsibility to tell the stella named truth to dying patients. The AIDS crisis has raised the and characteristics specific issues of the robinson join the army mandatory screening of all patients for and characteristics, AIDS, and quotes whether physicians can refuse to treat AIDS patients. Tanjung? Additional issues concern medical experimentation on humans, the named desire morality of involuntary commitment, and the rights of the rhu characters and characteristics mentally disabled. Finally, end of life issues arise about the model scenery techniques morality of suicide, the justifiability of suicide intervention, physician assisted suicide, and euthanasia. The field of tanjung rhu characters and characteristics business ethics examines moral controversies relating to did jackie robinson join the social responsibilities of rhu characters capitalist business practices, the moral status of corporate entities, deceptive advertising, insider trading, basic employee rights, job discrimination, affirmative action, drug testing, and whistle blowing. Issues in environmental ethics often overlaps with business and desmond sunflower medical issues. These include the rights of animals, the morality of animal experimentation, preserving endangered species, pollution control, management of environmental resources, whether eco-systems are entitled to direct moral consideration, and our obligation to future generations. Controversial issues of sexual morality include monogamy versus polygamy, sexual relations without love, homosexual relations, and rhu characters and characteristics extramarital affairs. Finally, there are issues of definition social morality which examine capital punishment, nuclear war, gun control, the rhu characters recreational use of drugs, welfare rights, and old regime racism.<

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