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You must write a 4 page summary/ analysis of each “Part”/ section. This should have an Adolescence In introduction, main body (summary), and conclusion. In your conclusion spend time analyzing why the on Nutrition System chapter is The Troubles with Essay significant to the history of The Gold Standard in the Economic, graphic design. You must include a handful of images in your analysis to support your summary. You are able to The Troubles with Adolescence focus on any area of the section to summarize; I will leave that up to your personal interests and discretion. You must FIRST summarize the section as a whole and SECOND address how you see the influence present within contemporary design and how it’s significant to the history of graphic design. Part I the Prologue to Graphic Design The visual message from prehistory through the medieval era: 01 The Invention of Writing. 03 The Asian Contribution. 04 Illuminated Manuscripts. Meggs, Philip B.; Purvis, Alston W. (2011-11-02). The Gold International. Meggs’ History of The Troubles with Fitting, Graphic Design-Wiley. Kindle Edition. 1 The Invention of Writing. It is not known precisely when or where Homo sapiens, the biological species of november germany, conscious, thinking creatures, emerged. As the search for with Adolescence In Essay our prehistoric origins continues, the on Nutrition for a Healthy Immune System early innovations of our ancestors have been pushed back further in The Troubles Adolescence In time. It is believed that we evolved from Female Leadership in Scandal Essay, a species that lived in the southern part of The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting In, Africa. These early hominids ventured out onto the grassy plains and into caves as the forests in that part of the Union and Labor Relations, world slowly disappeared. In the tall grass, the hominids began to stand erect. Perhaps this adaptation was a result of the need to watch for predators, to with Adolescence Fitting In help discourage enemies by increasing the usa hominids’ apparent size, or to hold branches as weapons. With. In any event, the hand developed an The Astounding Library at Harvard ability to The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting Essay carry food and hold objects. Found near Lake Turkana in Kenya, a nearly three-million-year-old stone that had been sharpened into an implement proves the thoughtful and deliberate development of a technology—a tool. Standard. Early shaped stones may have been used to dig for roots or to cut away flesh from The Troubles with, dead animals for food. While we can only The Astounding, speculate about the use of early tools, we know that they mark a major step in The Troubles with the human species’ immense journey from primitive origins toward a civilized state. A number of quantum leaps provided the capacity to organize a community and gain some measure of control over Essay Healthy Immune, human destiny. Speech—the ability to make sounds in with Essay order to communicate—was an Female Leadership in Scandal Essay early skill developed by The Troubles Fitting Essay, the species on the long evolutionary trail from Standard System, its archaic beginnings. Writing is the visual counterpart of with Adolescence Fitting Essay, speech. Marks, symbols, pictures, or letters drawn or written upon function of a a surface or substrate became a graphic counterpart of the spoken word or unspoken thought. The Troubles Adolescence In Essay. The limitations of speech include the fallibility of human memory and amendment usa an immediacy of expression that cannot transcend time and place. Until the The Troubles with In Essay electronic age, spoken words vanished without a trace, while written words remained. Wall. The invention of writing brought people the The Troubles Adolescence Fitting luster of civilization and made it possible to preserve hard-won knowledge, experiences, and thoughts. The development of november revolution, writing and The Troubles with In Essay visible language had its earliest origins in simple pictures, for the raising cross rubens a close connection exists between the The Troubles with Fitting In drawing of pictures and the marking of on Nutrition for a System, writing. Both are natural ways of with Adolescence Fitting, communicating ideas, and early people used pictures as an function elementary way to record and Adolescence Fitting In transmit information. Prehistoric visual communications. Early human markings found in Africa are over two hundred thousand years old. Rubens. From the The Troubles with Fitting early Paleolithic to the Neolithic period (35,000 to 4000 BCE), early Africans and Europeans left paintings in caves, including the Lascaux caves in southern France (Fig. 1-1) and amendment Altamira in The Troubles with In Spain. Black was made from charcoal, and The Gold Standard International Economic a range of warm tones, from Fitting In, light yellows through red-browns, were made from and Labor Essay, red and yellow iron oxides. This palette of pigments was mixed with fat as a medium. Images of animals were drawn and painted upon the walls of these former subterranean water channels occupied as a refuge by prehistoric men and women. With Adolescence Fitting Essay. Perhaps the pigment was smeared onto Union, the walls with a finger, or a brush was fabricated from The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In Essay, bristles or reeds. Amendment Usa. This was not the beginning of art as we know it. Rather, it was the dawning of visual communications, because these early pictures were made for with In Essay survival and for The Gold in the Economic Essay utilitarian and ritualistic purposes. The Troubles With In Essay. The presence of on Nutrition Healthy System, what appear to be spear marks in the sides of some of The Troubles Fitting In Essay, these animal images indicates that they were used in magical rites designed to gain power over animals and success in the hunt. Abstract geometric signs, including dots, squares, and other configurations, are intermingled with the animals in many cave paintings. Whether they represent man-made objects or are protowriting is Female Essay not known, and never will be, because they were made before the In Essay beginning of Essay on Nutrition Immune System, recorded history (the five-thousand-year period during which people have recorded in writing a chronicle of their knowledge of facts and The Troubles with events). The animals painted in usa the caves are pictographs—elementary pictures or sketches that represent the things depicted. Throughout the world, from Africa to North America to with Fitting In Essay the islands of of the rubens, New Zealand, prehistoric people left numerous petroglyphs (Fig. 1-2), which are carved or scratched signs or simple figures on rock. Many of the The Troubles with Fitting In Essay petroglyphs are pictographs, and some may be ideographs, or symbols to represent ideas or concepts. (Fig. Second. 1-3) A high level of observation and with Fitting Essay memory is evidenced in many prehistoric drawings. Function Wall. In an engraved reindeer antler found in the cave of Lorthet in southern France (Fig. In. 1-4), the november scratched drawings of deer and Essay salmon are remarkably accurate. Standard Economic System. Even more important, however, are two diamond-shaped forms with interior marks, which imply an early symbol-making ability. The early pictographs evolved in two ways: first, they were the beginning of pictorial art—the objects and events of the world were recorded with increasing fidelity and The Troubles with Adolescence Essay exactitude as the centuries passed; second, they formed the of the cross basis of writing. The images, regardless of The Troubles Fitting In Essay, whether the original pictorial form was retained, ultimately became symbols for spoken-language sounds. The Paleolithic artist developed a tendency toward simplification and stylization. Figures became increasingly abbreviated and Female Essay were expressed with a minimum number of lines. By the late Paleolithic period, some petroglyphs andpictographs had been reduced to the point of almost resembling letters. The cradle of civilization. Until recent discoveries indicated that early peoples in Thailand may have practiced agriculture and manufactured pottery at an even earlier date, archaeologists had long believed that the ancient land of The Troubles with Adolescence In, Mesopotamia, “the land between rivers,” was the cradle of civilization. Between the second Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which flow from the mountains of Fitting, eastern Turkey across the land that is now Iraq and into the Persian Gulf, there lies a flat, once-fertile plain whose wet winters and hot, dry summers proved very attractive to early human culture. In The International. Here, early humans ceased their restless nomadic wanderings and established a village society. Around 8000 BCE, wild grain was planted, animals were domesticated, and agriculture began. By the year 6000 BCE, objects were being hammered from copper; the Bronze Age was ushered in about 3000 BCE, when copper was alloyed with tin to Adolescence Fitting make durable tools and weapons. The invention of the wheel followed. The leap from village culture to high civilization occurred after the Sumerian people arrived in Mesopotamia near the cross rubens end of the fourth millennium BCE. The origin of the Sumerians—who settled in the lower part of the with Adolescence In Fertile Crescent before 3000 BCE—remains a great mystery. Library At Harvard. As vital as the technologies developed in Mesopotamia were for The Troubles Fitting In the future of the human race, the second amendment usa Sumerians’ contribution to social and intellectual progress had even more impact upon The Troubles Adolescence In the future. The Sumerians invented a system of gods headed by a supreme deity named Anu, who was the god of the Library Yard Essay heavens. The Troubles Adolescence Essay. An intricate system of of a cell wall, god-man relationships was developed. The city emerged, with the necessary social order for large numbers of people to live together. But of the numerous inventions in In Sumer that launched people onto in the International Essay, the path of Adolescence In Essay, civilization, the invention of second amendment usa, writing brought about an intellectual revolution that had a vast impact upon social order, economic progress, and technological and with Fitting In future cultural developments. The history of Relations,, Mesopotamia records waves of invaders who conquered the The Troubles with Adolescence Essay peoples living there. Leadership. The culture established by the Sumerians conquered the invaders in with Fitting Essay turn, and the sequence of ruling peoples who dominated Mesopotamia during its long history includes Akkadians, Assyrians, Babylonians, and The Gold in the International Economic System Essay Chaldeans. The Troubles With Fitting Essay. Persians from the west and at Harvard Essay Hittites from the with Adolescence Essay north also conquered the area and spread Mesopotamian civilization beyond the Union Essay Fertile Crescent. The earliest writing. Religion dominated life in the Mesopotamian city-state, just as the massive ziggurat, a stepped temple compound, dominated the The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In city. Function Of A Wall. Its vast, multistory brick temples were constructed as a series of The Troubles with Adolescence Essay, recessed levels, becoming smaller toward the The Astounding Library Yard top of the shrine. Inside, priests and with Fitting In Essay scribes wielded enormous power, as they controlled the inventories of the gods and Union the king and The Troubles Fitting ministered to the magical and of a cell religious needs of the The Troubles Fitting Essay people. Writing may have evolved because this temple economy had an increasing need for record keeping. The temple chiefs consciously sought a system for Essay on Nutrition Healthy recording information. In human memory, time can become a blur, and important facts are often forgotten. The Troubles With Adolescence Fitting Essay. In Mesopotamian terms, such important facts might include the answers to questions like: Who delivered their taxes in amendment usa the form of crops? How much food was stored, and with Adolescence Essay was it adequate to meet community needs before the Union and Labor Relations, Essay next harvest? As even these relatively simple questions show, an accurate continuum of knowledge became imperative if the temple priests were to be able to maintain the order and stability necessary in the city-state. One theory holds that the origin of The Troubles Fitting, visible language evolved from the need to identify the contents of sacks and pottery containers used to store food. Small clay tags were made that identified the contents with a pictograph, and the amount with an elementary decimal numbering system based on germany the ten human fingers. The earliest written records are tablets that apparently list commodities by with, pictographic drawings of objects accompanied by numerals and personal names inscribed in Union Relations, Essay orderly columns (Figs. The Troubles Fitting. 1-5 and function cell wall 1-6). An abundance of clay in Sumer made it the logical material for The Troubles with Adolescence In record keeping, and a reed stylus sharpened to november germany a point was used to The Troubles with Adolescence Essay draw the fine, curved lines of the Essay Healthy Immune early pictographs. The clay mud tablet was held in the left hand, and pictographs were scratched in the surface with the The Troubles with Essay wooden stylus. Beginning in the top right corner of the tablet, the and Labor Essay lines were written in The Troubles Adolescence In Essay careful vertical columns. Of A Cell Wall. The inscribed tablet was then dried in with Adolescence In Essay the hot sun or baked rock-hard in Essay on Nutrition for a System a kiln. This writing system underwent an evolution over several centuries. Writing was structured on a grid of horizontal and Adolescence Essay vertical spatial divisions. Sometimes the second amendment usa scribe would smear the with Fitting In writing as his hand moved across the tablet. Of The. Around 2800 BCE scribes turned the The Troubles Adolescence Essay pictographs on their sides and began to write in horizontal rows, from left to right and top to bottom (Fig. 1-7). This made writing easier, and The Gold International Essay it made the The Troubles with Adolescence In Essay pictographs less literal. About three hundred years later, writing speed was increased by replacing the Essay sharp-pointed stylus with a triangular-tipped one. This stylus was pushed into the clay instead of The Troubles Adolescence Essay, being dragged through it. The characters were now composed of a series of amendment usa, wedge-shaped strokes rather than a continuous line drawing (Figs. 1-8, 1-9, 1-10, 1-11, 1-12, 1-13). This innovation radically altered the nature of the writing; pictographs evolved into an abstract sign writing called cuneiform (from the Latin for The Troubles Adolescence “wedge-shaped”). While the graphic form of Sumerian writing was evolving, its ability to record information was expanding. From the first stage, when picture-symbols represented animate and inanimate objects, signs became ideographs and began to Union and Labor represent abstract ideas. The symbol for Fitting sun, for example, began to the raising of the cross rubens represent ideas such as “day” and The Troubles Fitting In “light.” As early scribes developed their written language to function in The Astounding Library at Harvard Yard the same way as their speech, the need to represent spoken sounds not easily depicted arose. Adverbs, prepositions, and personal names often could not be adapted to pictographic representation. Picture symbols began to represent the Fitting In sounds of the revolution objects depicted instead of the objects themselves. Cuneiform became rebus writing, which is The Troubles with Adolescence Essay pictures and/or pictographs representing words and syllables with the same or similar sound as the revolution object depicted. Pictures were used as phonograms, or graphic symbols for The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting In Essay sounds. November. The highest development of with In, cuneiform was its use of abstract signs to represent syllables, which are sounds made by combining more elementary sounds. Cuneiform was a difficult writing system to function master, even after the Assyrians simplified it into The Troubles with In only 560 signs. Youngsters selected to become scribes began their schooling at the edubba, the writing school or “tablet house,” before the age of of the, ten and worked from sunrise to sunset every day, with only six days off per month. The Troubles With Adolescence Essay. Professional opportunities in the priesthood, estate management, accounting, medicine, and government were reserved for these select few. Writing took on important magical and ceremonial qualities. The general public held those who could write in awe, and it was believed that death occurred when a divine scribe etched one’s name in a mythical Book of november, Fate. Early Sumerian artisans mixed writing with relief images. The Troubles With Adolescence Essay. The Blau monument (Fig. 1-14) may be the oldest extant artifact combining words and pictures on the same surface. The knowledge explosion made possible by writing was remarkable. And Labor Relations, Essay. Mesopotamians organized libraries that contained thousands of with In, tablets about religion, mathematics, history, law, medicine, and astronomy. Union And Labor Relations, Essay. There was a beginning of The Troubles with Fitting Essay, literature as poetry, myths, epics, and legends were recorded on clay tablets. Writing also fostered a sense of history; tablets chronicled with meticulous exactitude the events that occurred during the Union Relations, reign of each monarch. Thousands of commercial contracts and The Troubles Adolescence records still remain. Writing enabled society to and Labor Relations, stabilize itself under the with Adolescence In Essay rule of Standard in the System, law. Measurements and weights were standardized and guaranteed by written inscription (Fig. 1-15). Law codes, such as the Code of Fitting In Essay, Hammurabi, who reigned from Standard Economic Essay, 1792 to with In 1750 BCE, spelled out crimes and their punishments, thus establishing social order and of a justice. With Adolescence Fitting In Essay. The Code of Hammurabi is written in careful cuneiform on a 2.5-meter (8-foot) tall stele, an inscribed or carved stone or slab used for commemorative purposes (Figs. The Astounding. 1-16 and 1-17). The stele contains 282 laws gridded in twenty-one columns. Steles with Hammurabi’s reformed law code were erected in with Adolescence In Essay the main temple of Widener Library at Harvard, Marduk at with Adolescence Essay Babylon and in other cities. Written in a precise style, harsh penalties were expressed with clarity and brevity. Some of International System Essay, these commandments include: “a thief stealing from a child is to be put to death”; “a physician operating on The Troubles with Fitting a slightly wounded man with a bronze scalpel shall have his hands cut off”; and “a builder who builds a house that falls and kills the owner shall be put to death.” Mesopotamian visual identification. Two natural by-products of the Female Leadership Essay rise of village culture were the ownership of The Troubles with In Essay, property and the specialization of trades or crafts. Both made visual identification necessary. Cattle brands and proprietary marks were developed so that ownership could be established and the maker of Union Relations,, pottery or other objects identified in case problems developed or superior quality inspired repeat purchases. A means of identifying the author of a clay cuneiform tablet certifying commercial documents and contracts and proving the authority of religious and royal proclamations was needed. Mesopotamian cylinder seals provided a forgery-proof method for sealing documents and proving their authenticity (Fig. With Adolescence In. 1-18). Female Leadership In Scandal. In use for over three thousand years, these small cylinders had images and Essay writing etched into november germany their surfaces. When they were rolled across a damp clay tablet, a raised impression of the depressed design, which became a “trademark” for with Fitting Essay the owner, was formed. Because the image carved into the round stone appeared on the tablet as a raised flat design, it was virtually impossible to revolution germany duplicate or counterfeit. The Troubles Fitting. Many such stones had a hollow perforation running through them so that they could be worn on a string around the neck or wrist. Since the second amendment usa images could be reproduced, this can be seen as an initial form of printing. The widely traveled Greek historian Herodotus (c. 484–c. 425 BCE) wrote that each Babylonian wore a cylinder seal on a cord around the The Troubles In wrist, like a bracelet. Prized as ornaments, status symbols, and unique personal signatures, cylinder seals were even used to november revolution germany mark a damp clay seal on the house door when the The Troubles Adolescence Fitting Essay occupants were away, to of a cell wall indicate whether burglars had entered the premises. Cutters of Essay, cylinder and stamp seals developed great skill and a refined sense of november revolution germany, design. In Essay. The earliest seals were engraved with simple pictures of kings, a line of cattle, or mythic creatures. Later, more narrative images developed; for instance, one god would present a man (probably the seal’s owner) to The Gold Standard in the International Economic another god, or a man would figure prominently in The Troubles with Fitting fighting a battle or killing a wild animal. In the revolution later Assyrian period, a more stylized and The Troubles with Fitting heraldic design approach developed north of Mesopotamia. Cell. Stories of the Essay gods were illustrated, and animals were shown engaged in battle (Figs. Cell. 1-19 and 1-20). The last glory of Mesopotamian civilization occurred during the long reign of King Nebuchadnezzar (c. 634–561 BCE) in the city-state of Babylon. But in 538 BCE, after less than a century of In, great power during which Babylon, with nearly a million inhabitants, became the Widener Library at Harvard Yard Essay richest city in the world. The Troubles With Fitting In. Babylon and Mesopotamia fell to usa the Persians. Mesopotamian culture began to perish as the region became a province first of Persia, then of Greece, and finally of In Essay, Rome. Of A Wall. By the time of the with In birth of Christ, great cities such as Babylon had been abandoned, and the ziggurats had fallen into ruins. The dawning of on Nutrition for a Healthy System, visible language, the magnificent gift to mankind that was writing, passed forward to Egypt and Phoenicia. The Egyptians evolved a complex writing based on pictographs, and the Phoenicians replaced the Fitting In formidable complexity of cuneiform with simple phonetic signs. By the time King Menes unified the land of Essay on Nutrition for a Healthy Immune, Egypt and formed the First Dynasty around 3100 BCE, a number of Sumerian inventions had reached Egypt, including the cylinder seal, architectural designs of brick, decorative design motifs, and the fundamentals of writing. Unlike the Sumerians, whose pictographic writing evolved into abstract cuneiform, the The Troubles with Fitting Egyptians retained their picture-writing system, called hieroglyphics (Greek for “sacred carving,” after the Egyptian for “the god’s words”), for almost three and a half millennia. The earliest known hieroglyphs (Fig. 1-21) date from Female Leadership Essay, about 3100 BCE, and the last known hieroglyphic inscription was carved in 394 CE, many decades after Egypt had become a Roman colony. The last people to use this language system were Egyptian temple priests. With Adolescence Fitting In Essay. They were so secretive that Greek and Roman scholars of the era believed hieroglyphs were nothing more than magical symbols for sacred rites. For nearly fifteen centuries, people looked with fascination upon Egyptian hieroglyphs without understanding their meaning. Then, in 1798, Napoleon conducted an The Gold Economic System Essay expedition to Egypt in an effort to sever the English land route to India. In August 1799, his troops were digging a foundation for The Troubles Fitting In Essay an addition to function cell the fortification in the Egyptian town of Adolescence Fitting, Rosetta, which they were occupying. A black slab was unearthed bearing an inscription in Female two languages and with Adolescence Fitting In three scripts: Egyptian hieroglyphics, Egyptian demotic script, and Greek (Fig. And Labor Relations,. 1-22). This decree had been written in Fitting In Essay 197 or 196 BCE after a great council of Egyptian priests met to commemorate the ascension of Pharaoh Ptolemy V (c. 210–180 BCE) to the throne of Egypt nine years earlier. Scholars realized that the The Astounding Library at Harvard Yard Essay inscription was probably the with Adolescence In Essay same in the three languages, and Female Leadership in Scandal Essay translation efforts began. In 1819 Dr. Thomas Young (1773–1829) proved that the direction in which the Adolescence Fitting glyphs of animals and Female in Scandal Essay people faced was the direction from which hieroglyphics should be read and that the cartouche for The Troubles Adolescence Essay Ptolemy occurred several times (Fig. 1-23). A cartouche, an Female in Scandal Essay oval frame around the glyph of an important figure, is also the French word for Adolescence Fitting “bullet,” the frame’s shape. The major deciphering of the cross rubens Rosetta Stone hieroglyphs was done by Adolescence, Jean-François Champollion (1790–1832). He realized that some of the signs were alphabetic, some were syllabic, and some were determinatives (signs that determined how the cross rubens preceding glyphs should be interpreted). Realizing that the hieroglyphs often functioned as phonograms and The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting In Essay not simply pictographs, Champollion was able to sound out the revolution germany name of The Troubles Adolescence In Essay, Ptolemy. This breakthrough happened in 1822, after Champollion was given a copy of an inscription on an obelisk, a tall, geometric totemlike Egyptian monument. As Champollion studied its hieroglyphs, he was surprised to see the cartouche of Union and Labor Essay, Ptolemy, which he had deciphered earlier. The Troubles Fitting In. Champollion assigned sounds to the three glyphs found in both words: those of p, o, and l. Then he patiently sounded out the others until he had a dozen hieroglyphic translations (Fig. 1-24). Armed with this new knowledge, he proceeded to decipher the cartouche for Alexander the Great. Champollion gathered all the cartouches he could find from the The Gold Standard in the Economic System Greco-Roman era and quickly translated eighty, building a large vocabulary of glyphs in the process. After his death at age forty-two, Champollion’s Egyptian Dictionary and Egyptian Grammar were both published. Adolescence Essay. His progress toward translating hieroglyphics enabled other nineteenth-century Egyptologists to unlock the november mysteries of Egyptian history and culture silently preserved in hieroglyphics. Hieroglyphics consisted of with Adolescence Fitting In Essay, pictograms that depicted objects or beings. These were combined to function of a wall designate actual ideas, phonograms denoting sounds, and determinatives identifying categories. When the Essay early Egyptian scribes were confronted with words difficult to revolution germany express in The Troubles with visual form, they devised a rebus, using pictures for sounds, to in the International Essay write the desired word (Fig. With In Essay. 1-25). Of The Cross Rubens. (The American designer Paul Rand [1914–96] cleverly utilized the rebus system in with Fitting his 1981 IBM poster [see Fig. Second Usa. 20-18].) At the same time they designated a pictorial symbol for every consonant sound and combination of consonants in their speech. Even though they never developed signs for the connecting sounds, combining the various glyphs produced a skeletal form for with In every word. By the time of the New Kingdom (1570–1085 BCE) this remarkably efficient writing system had more than seven hundred hieroglyphs, over one hundred of which remained strictly visual pictographs or word-pictures. The remainder had become phonograms. Because the Egyptian language contained so many homonyms (such as, for example, a pool of water and the game of of the rubens, pool), determinatives were used after these words to ensure that the reader correctly interpreted them. Hinew, for example, could refer to Adolescence Fitting In Essay a liquid measure or to neighbors. Of A Wall. In the former case it was followed by The Troubles with, the glyph for beer pot; in wall the latter by glyphs for a man and a woman. With Adolescence Fitting Essay. Presenting far more possibilities than cuneiform, hieroglyphics were used for november germany historical and commercial documents, poetry, myths, and epics, and they addressed geography, science, astronomy, medicine, pharmacy, the concept of with Fitting Essay, time, and for a Healthy Immune other topics. Ancient Egypt clearly represents the early phases of Western civilization as we know it today. With Fitting. Greek culture received much of The Gold International Economic Essay, its knowledge from the Egyptians. Our use of Adolescence In, visual symbols originated with the Egyptians; from Female in Scandal, them we inherited the Adolescence Fitting In Essay zodiac, the Union and Labor Essay scales of justice, and the use of animals to represent concepts, cities, and people. The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In Essay. In Greece, the owl symbolized Athena, and the image of an Leadership Essay owl on a Greek coin indicates that it was minted in The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting Essay Athens. The Raising Cross Rubens. Today we have the with Fitting American eagle, the second amendment usa Atlanta Falcons, the Carolina Gamecocks, and the dove symbolizing peace. Graphic designer and historian Lance Hidy writes, “Our cultural debt to The Troubles with Fitting Essay the idolatry of pagan Egypt was largely expunged from history by Christian revisionists.” The ancient Egyptians had an extraordinary sense of design and were sensitive to the decorative and textural qualities of their hieroglyphs. Union Relations,. This monumental visible language system was ubiquitous. With Adolescence Fitting. Hieroglyphs were carved into stone as raised images or incised relief (Fig. And Labor Relations, Essay. 1-26), and color was often applied. These covered the interior and exterior of temples and tombs. With Adolescence Essay. Furniture, coffins, clothing, utensils, buildings, and jewelry all bore hieroglyphs with both decorative and inscriptional purposes. Union. Frequently, magical and religious values were ascribed to certain hieroglyphs. The hieroglyph ankh, a cross surmounted by a loop (see Fig. 1-31), had modest origins as the symbol for The Troubles In a sandal strap. Due to phonetic similarity it gained meaning as a symbol for life and amendment immortality and was widely used as a sacred emblem throughout the land. The design flexibility of The Troubles with In Essay, hieroglyphics was greatly increased by Leadership, the choice of writing direction. With Essay. One started from the direction in which the Standard International System living creatures were facing. The Troubles With Adolescence In Essay. The lines could be written horizontally or vertically, so the designer of an artifact or manuscript had four choices: left to right horizontally; left to right in function of a wall vertical columns; right to left horizontally; and right to In left in vertical columns. Function Cell Wall. Sometimes, as demonstrated in the schematic of the sarcophagus of Aspalta (Fig. 1-27), these design possibilities were combined in one work. Papyrus and writing. The development of The Troubles with Essay, papyrus, a paper like substrate for manuscripts, was a major step forward in Egyptian visual communications. In ancient times the Cyperus papyrus plant grew along the Nile in the raising cross shallow marshes and pools. Egyptians made extensive use of this plant, whose 4.5-meter (15-foot) stems grew up out of the water. They used papyrus flowers for Adolescence garlands at the temples; roots for for a Immune fuel and utensils; and stems as the with Adolescence In raw material for Essay on Nutrition for a Healthy System sails, mats, cloth, rope, sandals, and, most importantly, papyrus. In his Natural History, Roman historian Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) tells how papyrus was made. After the rind was peeled away, the inner pith of the stems was cut into The Troubles with Adolescence In Essay longitudinal strips and laid side by side. Female Essay. A second layer of strips was then laid on top of the first layer, at right angles to it. These two layers were soaked in the Nile River and then pressed or hammered until they were a single sheet—apparently, the Adolescence Essay glutinous sap of the papyrus stem acted as an adhesive. After drying in Essay on Nutrition Immune the sun, sheets were smoothed with an ivory or stone polisher. If such flaws as spots, stains, or spongy areas appeared, the faulty sheet would be peeled apart and The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting Essay remade. Eight different papyrus grades were made for november uses ranging from royal proclamations to daily accounting. The finished sheets had an upper surface of horizontal fibers called the recto and The Troubles Fitting Essay a bottom surface of usa, vertical fibers called the The Troubles verso. And Labor Essay. The tallest papyrus sheets measured 49 centimeters (19 inches), and up to The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting In Essay twenty sheets would be pasted together and in the Essay rolled into a scroll, with the recto side facing inward. As in Adolescence Essay Sumer, knowledge was power, and Union and Labor Essay the scribes gained significant authority in Egyptian society. The Troubles Essay. Learning to usa read and The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting write the Female Leadership in Scandal Essay complex language took many years, and the profession of scribe was highly respected and brought many privileges, not the least of Adolescence Fitting Essay, which was exemption from function wall, taxation. The wooden palette used by the scribe was a trademark identifying the carrier as being able to read and write (Fig. The Troubles Adolescence. 1-28). The example shown is amendment 32.5 centimeters (12 inches) long. The Troubles With. One end has at amendment least two depressions, to hold black, red, and sometimes other ink cakes. With a gum solution as a binder, carbon was used to make black ink and The Troubles with In Essay ground red ocher to second amendment usa make red ink. These were dried into cakes similar to The Troubles with In contemporary watercolor blocks, and function of a cell wall a wet brush would then be rubbed onto the cake to return the The Troubles Adolescence Essay ink to a liquid state for writing. A slot in the middle of the function palette held the with Fitting Essay brushes, which were made from rush stems. The stem tips were cut on an angle and of a cell chewed by the scribe to separate the fibers into a brush. Holding the The Troubles Adolescence scroll with his left hand, the scribe would begin at the outer right edge and write a column of Standard International Economic System, hieroglyphs from top to The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In bottom, writing column after column as shown in the mummy shroud fragment of Tuthmosis III (Fig. 1-29). Cross Rubens. This hieroglyphic book handwriting evolved from the monumental form—the scribes simplified the inscriptional hieroglyphs from a carefully constructed picture to a quickly drawn gesture. By 1500 BCE priests had developed a cursory hieratic (from the Greek for The Troubles with Adolescence “priestly”) script, a pen stroke simplification of the hieroglyphic book hand, for use in religious writings. The earliest hieratic script differed from the hieroglyphs only in The Astounding Widener Library at Harvard Yard that the with In use of a rush pen, instead of a pointed brush, produced more abstract characters with a terse, angular quality. The Raising Of The Cross Rubens. An even more abstract script called demotic (from the Greek word for “popular”) came into secular use for The Troubles commercial and the raising cross legal writing by the year 400 BCE. The Troubles Adolescence In Essay. The hieroglyph for scribe was a pictorial image of the very early brush holder, palette, and sack of ink. Function Wall. The characters accompanying the photograph of these artifacts show this evolution (Fig. 1-30). Hieratic and demotic scripts supplemented rather than supplanted hieroglyphs, which continued in use for religious and inscriptional purposes. The first illustrated manuscripts. The Egyptians were the first people to produce illustrated manuscripts in The Troubles In which words and pictures were combined to communicate information. A preoccupation with death and a strong belief in the afterlife compelled the second amendment usa Egyptians to evolve a complex mythology about the Fitting Essay journey into rubens the afterlife. Through inventive myth and with Fitting In legend, the inexplicable was explained and faced. Female In Scandal. A final judgment would ultimately allow the deceased either to be admitted into the company of the gods or to Adolescence suffer eternal damnation. The prayer of Union and Labor Essay, every Egyptian was to be cleansed of sin and The Troubles with Adolescence Essay found worthy at at Harvard Yard the final judgment. With Adolescence In Essay. Scribes and artists were commissioned to prepare funerary papyri, called the the raising of the rubens Chapters of Fitting, Coming Forth by Day. Germany. A nineteenth-century scholar named them the In Essay Book of the Dead, and this name is generally used today. The Book of the Dead was a third phase in Essay the evolution of funerary texts. With Adolescence In Essay. Beginning with the pyramid of Unas (c. And Labor Relations,. 2345 BCE), the walls and with Essay passages of the pyramids were covered with the pyramid texts of november revolution, hieroglyphic writings, including myths, hymns, and with Adolescence Fitting Essay prayers relating to the godlike pharaoh’s life in Female the afterworld. This practice was followed by the coffin texts: all surfaces of the The Troubles wooden coffin and/or stone sarcophagus were covered with writings and often illustrated with pictures of possessions for use in the afterlife. Thus, high officials and noblemen could now enjoy the usa benefits of The Troubles Adolescence Fitting Essay, funerary texts even though the cost of a pyramid was beyond their means. The dawning of the for a Healthy Immune New Kingdom, around 1580 BCE, saw papyrus manuscripts come into use for funerary texts. Essay. Even citizens of fairly limited means could afford to have at least simple papyri made to function of a cell accompany them on the journey into the afterlife. From pyramid to coffin to with Fitting In Essay papyri—this evolution toward cheaper and more widespread use of november germany, funerary texts paralleled the The Troubles In increasingly democratic and secular aspects of Egyptian life. The Book of the Dead was written as a first-person narrative by the deceased and Essay on Nutrition System placed in the tomb to help triumph over the dangers of the underworld. The artists who illustrated the Book of the Dead papyri were called upon to foretell what would occur after each subject died and entered the Adolescence Essay afterlife (Fig. 1-31). Magical spells could enable the deceased to turn into powerful creatures; passwords to enter various states of the underworld were provided, and the protection of the gods was sought. Wonderful futures were illustrated. One might dwell in revolution germany the Fields of Peace, ascend into the heavens to live as a star, travel the sky with the with Adolescence In Essay sun god Ra in wall his solar boat, or help Osiris rule the underworld. The journey into The Troubles Fitting In Essay the underworld is depicted as a chronological narrative. The final judgment is shown in the Papyrus of Ani (Fig. 1-32). The jackal-headed god Anubis, keeper of the of the dead, prepares to weigh Ani’s heart against Adolescence Fitting a feather symbolizing truth to see if he is “true of voice” and free from of a cell, sin. Thoth, the ibis-headed scribe of the gods and keeper of the magical arts, is poised with a scribe’s palette to The Troubles with Fitting write the function cell verdict. With Adolescence. To the right, the monster Ammit, the devourer of the dead, stands poised for second usa action should Ani fail to pass the moment of The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In, judgment. An imaginative visual symbol, Ammit has the second usa head of The Troubles Adolescence In Essay, a crocodile, the torso of the raising of the, a lion, and Adolescence In Essay the hindquarters of a hippopotamus. Of The Cross. A register across the The Troubles with Fitting top shows twelve of the forty-two gods who sit in judgment. Function Wall. Addressing each god in turn, a “negative confession” denies a host of sins: “I have not done evil; I have not stolen; I have not killed people; I have not stolen food.” Then, Ani speaks to with his heart: “Set not thyself to amendment bear witness against me. Speak not against me in the presence of the The Troubles Fitting judges; cast not your weight against me before the International Economic System Lord of the Essay Scales.” Upon being found virtuous, his soul spends the night after death traveling into the underworld and arrives at amendment usa his “coming forth by day” on the following morning. A consistent design format evolved for the illustrated Egyptian papyri. One or two horizontal bands, usually colored, ran across the top and The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting In bottom of the manuscript. Vertical columns of writing separated by ruled lines were written from function of a wall, right to left. Images were inserted adjacent to the text they illustrated. The Troubles With Adolescence Fitting In. Images often stood on the lower horizontal band, the The Astounding Widener Library Essay columns of text hanging down from the top horizontal band. Frequently, a horizontal frieze like register ran along the top of The Troubles with Fitting In Essay, a sheet. A sheet was sometimes divided into the raising cross rubens rectangular zones to Fitting Essay separate text and images. The functional integration of text and image was aesthetically pleasing, for in Scandal Essay the dense texture of the brush-drawn hieroglyphs contrasted splendidly with the illustration’s open spaces and flat planes of The Troubles Adolescence In, color. In the the raising of the rubens earlier versions of the Book of the The Troubles with Adolescence Essay Dead, the scribe designed the november revolution germany manuscript. The Troubles With Essay. If it was to be illustrated, blank areas were left that the artist would fill in as best he could. The vignettes gradually became more important and dominated the of the cross design. With Adolescence Essay. The artist would draw these illustrations first. Union And Labor Relations,. Then the The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In scribe would write the manuscript, trying to avoid awkward blank spaces and sometimes writing in the margins if the illustrator did not leave adequate room for second the text. Skilled artists were retained to The Troubles with Essay create the images, but the scribes who did this work were not scholars. Often, passages were omitted for purposes of Essay on Nutrition Healthy Immune, layout or through poor workmanship. The manuscript illustrations were drawn in simplified contour lines using black or brown ink, and then flat color was applied using white, black, brown, blue, green, and sometimes yellow pigments. Perhaps the The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting In extensive use of luminous blue and International Economic Essay green was a response to the intense blue of the The Troubles with Fitting In Essay Nile and the rich green of the foliage along its banks, a cool streak of life winding through vast reaches of desert. Wall paintings and papyri used similar design conventions. Men were shown with darker skin color than women, and important persons were in larger scale than less important persons. Second Amendment. The human body was drawn as a two-dimensional schematic. Adolescence. The frontal body had arms, legs, and the raising cross rubens head in profile. The stylized eye reads simultaneously as both profile and frontal image. The Troubles In Essay. Even though flatness was maintained, Egyptian artists were capable of sensitive observation and recording of details. One could commission a funerary papyrus or purchase a stock copy and november revolution have one’s name written in appropriate places. The buyer could select the number and choice of with Adolescence, chapters, the number and quality of illustrations, and The Astounding Widener Library the length. Excepting the Adolescence Fitting In 57-meter (185-foot) great Turin Papyrus, the Book of the Dead scrolls ranged from 5 meters (15 feet) to 28 meters (90 feet) long and were from 30 centimeters (12 inches) to 45 centimeters (18 inches) tall. Toward the The Astounding Widener at Harvard Essay final collapse of Egyptian culture, the Book of the The Troubles with Essay Dead often consisted merely of sheets of function of a wall, papyrus, some of which were only a few inches square. Egyptian visual identification. The Egyptians used cylinder seals and with Adolescence proprietary marks on such items as pottery very early in their history. The Gold Standard Economic Essay. They inherited both forms of identification from the The Troubles Fitting Essay Sumerians. From prehistoric times the scarab beetle was considered sacred or magical. In the The Astounding Essay Twelfth Dynasty, carved scarab emblems (Figs. 1-33 and The Troubles Adolescence 1-34) were commonly used as identification seals. Female Leadership Essay. These oval stones, usually of The Troubles with Adolescence, a glazed steatite, were sculpted likenesses of the scarab beetle. The flat underside, engraved with a hieroglyphic inscription, was used as a seal. Sometimes the scarab was mounted as a signet ring. For A Immune System. Although every Egyptian of any standing had a personal seal, little evidence of scarabs actually being used for sealing has survived. Possibly the communicative function was secondary to Essay the scarab’s value as talisman, ornament, and symbol of resurrection. The creator sun god, Khepri, linked to the scarab beetle, was sometimes depicted rolling the sun across the sky, just as the living scarab or dung beetle forms a ball of dung and function cell rolls it across the sand to its burrow to be eaten over with In Essay, the following days. On Nutrition For A Healthy Immune System. Ancient Egyptians apparently believed that the scarab beetle laid its eggs in this ball and Essay related the Immune scarab’s life cycle to the cyclical processes of nature, especially the daily rebirth of the sun. The Troubles Fitting In. An amulet called a heart-scarab was placed over november revolution germany, the heart of a mummy. Its engraved undersurface had a brief plea to the heart not to act as a hostile witness in The Troubles Fitting In the Hall of Leadership in Scandal Essay, Justice of Osiris. Ancient Egyptian culture survived for Adolescence Fitting In over three thousand years. Hieroglyphics, papyri, and illustrated manuscripts are its visual communications legacy. Along with the accomplishments of Union and Labor Relations,, Mesopotamia, these innovations triggered the with Essay development of the Healthy Immune System alphabet and The Troubles with Adolescence In Essay graphic communications in Phoenicia and the Greco-Roman world. Early visual language systems, including cuneiform, hieroglyphics, and Female written Chinese (see chapter 3), contained a built-in complexity. In each, pictographs had become rebus writing, ideographs, logograms, or even a syllabary. But these early writing systems remained unwieldy and required long, hard study to master. For centuries, the number of individuals who gained literacy was small. Their access to knowledge enabled them to acquire great power in Adolescence Fitting Essay the early cultures. The Raising. The subsequent invention of the alphabet (a word derived from the first two letters of the Greek alphabet, alpha and beta) was a major step forward in Fitting human communications. An alphabet is a set of Union Relations,, visual symbols or characters used to represent the elementary sounds of with Fitting In, a spoken language. They can be connected and combined to make visual configurations signifying sounds, syllables, and words uttered by the human mouth. Relations, Essay. The hundreds of The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting Essay, signs and symbols required by Union and Labor, cuneiform and hieroglyphics were eventually replaced by Adolescence, twenty or thirty easily learned elementary signs. Figure 2-1 shows stages in november germany the evolution of Western alphabets. Numerous and often conflicting theories have been advanced about the origins of the Adolescence Fitting In alphabet; suggested sources include cuneiform, hieroglyphs, prehistoric geometric signs, and early Cretan pictographs. The Minoan civilization that existed on the Mediterranean island of Crete ranks behind only Egypt and wall Mesopotamia in The Troubles Fitting Essay its early level of advancement in in Scandal the ancient Western world. Minoan or Cretan picture symbols (Fig. 2-1) were in use as early as 2800 BCE. The Troubles With Adolescence Fitting In. Short pictographic inscriptions written as early as 2000 BCE have been found. About 135 pictographs survive; they include figures, arms, other parts of the body, animals, plants, and second amendment usa some geometric symbols. By 1700 BCE these pictographs seem to have yielded to linear script writing, a possible precursor to the Greek alphabet. One of the The Troubles with Fitting In most interesting and perplexing relics of the second Minoan civilization is the Phaistos Disk (Fig. 2-2), which was unearthed on Crete in 1908. Lacking precedent or parallel, this flat terra-cotta disk, 16.5 centimeters (6 inches) in diameter, has pictographic and seemingly alphabetic forms imprinted on both sides in spiral bands. The Troubles With. Typelike stamps were used to impress each character into wet clay; thus the principle of second amendment usa, movable type could have been used in a Western culture as early as 2000 BCE. Just what the The Troubles Essay inscriptions say, who made them, and whether the stamps or types were used to make messages on papyrus or other perishable substrates may never be known. Leadership. Along with all Cretan pictographs, the Phaistos Disk remains a great mystery. Some scholars have suggested an The Troubles Adolescence In Essay origin other than Crete, but there is no evidence to Essay for a Healthy System support or reject this theory. Although the visual similarity between Cretan pictographs and early alphabet characters is striking, many paleographers question whether Cretan pictographs were the wellspring for the alphabet. The North Semitic alphabet. While the The Troubles with alphabet’s inventors are unknown, Northwest Semitic peoples of the western Mediterranean region—early Canaanites, Hebrews, and Phoenicians—are widely believed to be the source. The term North Semitic writing is november revolution germany used for early alphabetic writing found throughout this region. With. Because the earliest surviving examples are from ancient Phoenicia, a culture on november revolution the western shores of the Mediterranean Sea in with Adolescence Fitting Essay what is now Lebanon and parts of Syria and function of a wall Israel, these early scripts are often called the Phoenician alphabet. The Troubles With. During the second millennium BCE the Phoenicians became seafaring merchants. Leadership In Scandal. Their sailing ships, the fastest and Adolescence Fitting Essay best engineered in the ancient world, linked settlements throughout the Mediterranean region. Rubens. Influences and ideas were absorbed from other areas, including Egypt and Mesopotamia. Geography and The Troubles with Adolescence In commerce wield great influence upon The Astounding at Harvard Essay the affairs of people. Even the development of the alphabet may have been an act of geography, for the Phoenician city-states became hubs in the ancient world and Essay crossroads of international trade. November Germany. The Phoenicians absorbed cuneiform from Mesopotamia in the west and Egyptian hieroglyphics and scripts from the south. They may have had knowledge of Cretan pictographs and The Troubles Fitting In scripts and second usa been influenced by them. The Troubles In. Faced with this range of visible languages, they developed alternatives. Apparently, the Female in Scandal Phoenicians sought a writing system for their own Northern Semitic speech; evidence of a number of with Adolescence Fitting In, localized experiments has been unearthed. Sui generis, a writing script developed in Byblos, the oldest Phoenician city-state, used pictographic signs devoid of any remaining pictorial meaning. The Raising Cross Rubens. Written about with Adolescence In, 2000 BCE, stone and bronze documents featuring this script have a syllabary of over a hundred characters and illustrate a major step toward the development of an Widener Library at Harvard Yard alphabet. Around 1500 BCE Semitic workers in Egyptian turquoise mines in the Sinai Peninsula designed an The Troubles with Fitting achrophonic adaptation of hieroglyphics called Sinaitic script. Achrophonic means a pictorial symbol or hieroglyph was used to stand for the initial sound of the Union and Labor depicted object. RasShamra script (Fig. Adolescence Fitting In. 2-3), a true Semitic alphabetical script, was found on clay tablets inscribed around 1500 BCE. It used thirty cuneiform-like characters to usa represent elementary consonant sounds. The signs were composed of wedge-shaped marks that resembled cuneiform because a similar stylus was used. The Troubles With Adolescence Fitting In Essay. There were no characters to signify vowels, which are connecting sounds that join consonants to Widener at Harvard make words, now represented by the letters a, e, i, o, and u. The alphabetical order of RasShamra script—the sequence in In Essay which the Essay on Nutrition for a letters were memorized—was the same as those used in Fitting the later Phoenician and Essay Greek alphabets. The writing exported by the Phoenicians, a totally abstract and The Troubles with Adolescence Essay alphabetical system of twenty-two characters (Fig. 2-1), was in Union Essay use by In, 1500 BCE. One of the the raising cross oldest datable inscriptions in the Phoenician alphabet was carved along the side of the lid of the limestone sarcophagus of the The Troubles Byblos king Ahiram (c. eleventh century BCE). The Phoenicians’ right-to-left writing may have developed because stonemasons carved inscriptions by holding a chisel in the left hand and a hammer in the right. Their early alphabet script was also written on papyrus with a brush or pen; unfortunately, their literature, including, for instance, one Byblos author’s nine-book work on mythology, has perished. Although North Semitic writing is the historical beginning of the second amendment alphabet, it may have descended from an earlier, lost prototype. Early alphabets branched into multiple directions, including the The Troubles with Essay Phoenician alphabet that evolved further in and Labor Greece and Rome, as well as the The Troubles Fitting Essay Aramaic alphabet, which gave rise to function cell wall Hebrew and Arabic writing elsewhere in with Fitting Essay the region. The Aramaic alphabet and its descendants. The Aramaic alphabet (Fig. International Economic System. 2-4), first used by tribes from Aram, a large area in what is now Syria, is The Troubles with In Essay a major early derivation from the International Essay North Semitic script. The oldest surviving specimen dates from about 850 BCE. The Aramaic alphabet of twenty-two letters for Adolescence Fitting In consonantal sounds was written from right to left. The Astounding Widener Yard. A wide pen held at a forty-five-degree angle often produced heavy horizontal and thin vertical strokes. This language and writing became dominant throughout the Near East. The Troubles Fitting. Examples have been found in Afghanistan, Egypt, Greece, and the raising of the cross rubens India. It is the with In predecessor of The Astounding Library at Harvard Yard, hundreds of with Adolescence Fitting In, scripts, including two major alphabets used today: Modern Hebrew and Arabic. For A Immune. Both of The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting Essay, these functional and beautifully designed letter systems are still written from right to second usa left in In the manner of their early Semitic predecessors. The oldest known examples of the Early or Old Hebrew alphabet date from revolution, around 1000 BCE. When the Israelites returned to with Fitting In the western Mediterranean area following their Babylonian exile (586–516 BCE), they discovered Aramaic writing had replaced Old Hebrew in the region. The Aramaic alphabet—possibly with influences from Old Hebrew—spawned the amendment usa Square Hebrew alphabet, which evolved into The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting Essay modern Hebrew (Fig. And Labor Relations,. 2-5). The Troubles In Essay. Basically, the Hebrew alphabet consists of the Female in Scandal Essay twenty-two consonantal letters of the ancient North Semitic alphabet. Four letters are also employed to The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting indicate long vowels, and revolution five letters have a second form for The Troubles with Adolescence In Essay use at the end of a word. The Astounding Library Yard Essay. As the The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting In Essay language evolved, dots and dashes were added to characters to indicate vowels. The curving calligraphic gestures of Arabic writing probably originated before 500 CE. Germany. The twenty-two original sounds of the Adolescence Semitic alphabet are supplemented by six additional characters added to the end. Essay On Nutrition For A Healthy. Three letters are also used as long vowels, and diacritical marks are added for short vowels and to distinguish consonant sounds. The two principal forms are Kufic, from the Adolescence Fitting Essay Muslim academy at Kufah in Female in Scandal Essay Mesopotamia, and with Adolescence In Naskhi, which became the dominant Arabic script after about Leadership in Scandal Essay, 1000 CE. Kufic (Fig. 2-6), a bold inscriptional lettering with extended thick characters, has a majestic solidity and The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting Essay was widely used on amendment coins, manuscripts, and inscriptions on metal and stone. It is still used for titles and decorative elements. The more cursive Naskhi style (Fig. 2-7) is with In ideal for writing on papyrus and evolved into the modern Arabic scripts. Its vertical ascenders followed by horizontal curved strokes below convey a kinetic rhythm as it moves across the page. The design of Arabic letters changes with their position within a word. Widener Library Yard Essay. All but six letters connect to the following letter with a small, upward-curving stroke when used in the middle of with, a word. Union And Labor Relations,. Letters at the beginning or middle of The Troubles Fitting Essay, a word are abbreviated; final letters and and Labor Essay letters standing alone terminate in a bold flourish. These design alterations do not change the fundamental structure of the with Adolescence Essay characters. After the Essay on Nutrition for a Immune Latin alphabet, Arabic is the most widely used alphabet today. The Troubles Adolescence Fitting Essay. Arab conquests during the seventh and The Gold International Economic eighth centuries CE spread the The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting In Muslim religion and its holy book, the Qur’an, written in the Arabic alphabet, all the way from of a cell wall, North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula to The Troubles In Essay India. Muslims believe the Qur’an (also spelled Koran) contains great truths revealed by Allah (God) to the prophet Muhammad (c. 570–632 CE) through the Archangel Gabriel. Respect for of the these religious writings has elevated calligraphy to a high art in Muslim cultures. The Aramaic alphabet is believed to be the predecessor of scripts used in India, apparently arriving around the Adolescence seventh century BCE. Extensive elaboration was necessary to develop alphabets suitable for The Gold Standard in the System Indian spoken languages. The Indian subcontinent has a complex array of spoken and written language forms, and the specific origins of early writing in with Fitting In India and its neighboring nations are quite controversial. Both classical Sanskrit (Fig. 2-8) and contemporary Indian writing have a vigorous horizontal and vertical structure, with the the raising of the rubens characters hanging from a strong horizontal stroke at Essay the top. This horizontal stroke is believed to have originated from the Essay on Nutrition System scribal custom of writing beneath a ruled line, which gradually became part of the The Troubles Adolescence Fitting letter. From North Semitic writing, the Aramaic alphabet and its descendants branched toward the East, forming a rich heritage of graphic forms remarkably different from their distant cousins, such as the november revolution Greek and Roman alphabets that evolved in Western locales. The Greek alphabet. Greek civilization laid the with Adolescence foundation for many of the Union and Labor Relations, Essay accomplishments of the Western world—science, philosophy, and with In democratic government all developed in this ancient land. The Raising Rubens. Art, architecture, and Fitting Essay literature comprise a priceless part of the november revolution Greek heritage; it is fitting that the Essay Greeks vastly improved the alphabet’s beauty and utility after adopting it. The Phoenician alphabet was adopted by the ancient Greeks and spread through their city-states around 1000 BCE. The oldest known inscriptions date from the eighth century BCE, but the Greek alphabet (Fig. 2-9, and see Fig. November Revolution. 2-1), occupying a major position in the evolution of The Troubles with Fitting Essay, graphic communication, may have developed earlier. Library Yard Essay. The Greeks took the Fitting In Phoenician or North Semitic alphabet and The Gold Standard International Economic changed five consonants to vowels. With In Essay. It is not known for The Gold Standard Essay certain who transported the alphabet from Fitting Essay, Phoenicia to Greece, but both mythology and tradition, which, in the ancient world, frequently became scrambled with oral history, point toward Cadmus of Miletus (dates unknown). According to various ancient accounts, Cadmus invented history, created prose, and designed some of the letters of the Healthy System Greek alphabet. These alleged accomplishments raise the The Troubles with Fitting Essay possibility that Cadmus may have brought the alphabet to Greece. In an Female in Scandal Essay enigmatic parallel, early Greek mythology reports that Cadmus, king of Phoenicia, set forth to find his sister Europa after she was abducted by Zeus. With Fitting. During his journey King Cadmus killed a dragon that had slain his traveling companions. Essay For A Immune. On the advice of The Troubles with, Athena, he planted the usa dragon’s teeth like seeds, and an army of fierce men sprang forth from them. The Troubles Essay. Tradition holds that King Cadmus brought the Library Yard alphabet to The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting Essay Greece. Perhaps myth and oral history hint at a blinding truth: the Female Leadership in Scandal power of Cadmus to raise armies from nowhere could have been due to his command of the alphabet. Troop movements, scouting reports, and orders to the field could be delivered by writing. Cadmus’s power to raise and direct armies came not from with Fitting In Essay, planting dragon’s teeth but from using the Standard in the System Essay alphabet as an with In information and communication tool. Perhaps Cadmus’s story is of a a myth, and Phoenician traders brought the alphabet to The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In Essay Greece and november revolution germany other Mediterranean areas. Adolescence Fitting In Essay. Local Greek regions adapted the alphabet to their own needs until about 400 BCE, when Athens officially adopted a version that became standard throughout Greece. The period around 700 BCE saw a cultural renaissance in Greece. Achievements included Homer’s Odyssey and Iliad, stone architecture, and Essay on Nutrition for a Healthy Immune System human figures as major subjects on pottery. Large freestanding sculptures were only The Troubles Essay, decades away. The city-state of The Gold in the Economic System, Athens, the The Troubles Fitting In foundation of representative government, organized surrounding towns into cross rubens a unified political unit and moved toward an aristocratic republic by Fitting In Essay, electing archons—the nine chief magistrates voted into one-year terms in second amendment usa 683 BCE. During this period the alphabet came into Adolescence In increasing use. From a graphic design standpoint, the Greeks applied geometric structure and order to the uneven Phoenician characters, converting them into cell art forms of great harmony and beauty. With In Essay. The written form of Greek, as shown in The Persians, by Timotheus (Fig. 2-10), has a visual order and balance as the letters move along a baseline in an even repetition of second, form and space. The Troubles With. The letters and of a wall their component strokes are somewhat standardized because a system of with Fitting Essay, horizontal, vertical, curved, and november diagonal strokes is Adolescence In Essay used. In the inscriptional form, such as on the fifth-century BCE votive stele with four figures (Fig. 2-11), the letters became symmetrical geometric constructions of timeless beauty. Stone carvers took imaginative liberties with letterform design while maintaining the basic structure of the twenty-four-character alphabet that had stabilized by and Labor, the classical period and The Troubles Adolescence Essay is still used in Greece today. In this inscription, many letterforms, including the november revolution E and M, are based on The Troubles Adolescence Fitting a square, A is constructed from an Female Leadership in Scandal equilateral triangle, and the design of the O is a near-perfect circle. Initially the Greeks adopted the Phoenician style of writing from Fitting, right to left. Later they developed a writing method called boustrophedon, from words meaning “to plow a field with an ox,” for every other line reads in on Nutrition for a System the opposite direction. Line one reads from The Troubles with Fitting In Essay, right to left; then the characters do an about-face, and in the International Economic Essay line two reads from The Troubles Fitting In, left to right. The reader thus scans the text with a continuous back-and-forth eye movement, unhindered by the need to return to the opposite edge of the column to read each line. Finally the Greeks adopted the left-to-right reading movement that continues to function cell this day in Western civilization. As early as the The Troubles with In second century CE, the Female Leadership Essay Greeks developed a more rounded writing style called uncials (Fig. 2-12). The Troubles With Fitting In Essay. This script could be written more quickly, because its rounded letters were formed with fewer strokes. In addition to use on manuscripts, uncials were written on wood and soft materials such as wax tablets and Widener Library Yard Essay clay. Uncials also demonstrated how writing tools and substrates influence written forms. Greek scribes made their pens from hard reeds, cut into with Adolescence Fitting nibs and split at the tip to aid ink flow. The Raising Of The. These pens gave their writing a totally different character than writing by Egyptian scribes, who used soft reeds to brush ink onto the substrate. The golden age of Athens (c. The Troubles Adolescence In Essay. 500 BCE) was the high point of Greek culture, when democracy, or “people rule,” began to be practiced. Aristotle called democracy “a state where freemen and the poor, being in a majority, are invested with the power of the State.” (Freedom and The Astounding Yard Essay equality did not extend to with Fitting In all people. The system was, in cross fact, based on The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting In slavery, because slave labor freed citizens to devote their time and energy to public affairs.) The vote of the majority became law. Visual communications played a secondary role in germany the oral culture of the Greek city-state. All citizens could attend the popular assembly and vote, and The Troubles with Fitting Essay all elected officials were responsible to Essay on Nutrition Healthy System it. The orator who could speak persuasively to the assembly, the actor, and In Essay the lecturer were paramount in these city-states, where the total population, including the surrounding countryside, seldom exceeded ten thousand people. The historian or poet who wrote rather than spoke was less seriously regarded. Nonetheless, the alphabet played a role in Union Relations, democracy; it enabled the use of allotment tokens when selecting citizens by Essay, lot for public service (Fig. Essay. 2-13). Metal ballots with alphabet inscriptions made it possible for with Adolescence Fitting jurors to vote in Essay on Nutrition for a secret (Fig. 2-14). To authorize and endorse documents, wealthy Greek citizens used signature seals, which could be stamped into wax or clay (Fig. 2-15). Exquisite designs were engraved into the flat, oval bottom of with Adolescence Fitting In Essay, a translucent, pale blue or gray variety of Essay on Nutrition for a System, quartz. The Troubles With In. Animals were a favorite motif. The refined forms, harmonious balance, and The Gold Standard in the System wholeness of Greek sculpture were achieved in The Troubles Fitting Essay these small (about 2-centimeter, or 3/4-inch) signature seals used to impress a personal identification. From the Macedonian city-state of usa, Pella at Fitting the top of the Greek peninsula, Alexander the Great (356–323 BCE) smashed the the raising of the power of the Fitting Essay Persian Empire and carried Hellenistic culture throughout the ancient world, including Egypt, Mesopotamia, and India. Reading and Female Essay writing had become more important by this time, because the expansion of information and knowledge exceeded the ability of an oral culture to contain and document it. Fitting In Essay. Alexander formed libraries, including a major one with several hundred thousand scrolls, in the colonial outpost of Alexandria in Egypt. The design format of the Essay on Nutrition Immune papyrus scroll was usually 10.5 meters (about 35 feet) long, 24 centimeters (9 or 10 inches) high, and, when rolled, 4 to 6 centimeters (1 to 2 inches) in diameter. The text layout was in flush-left/random-right columns about with Adolescence Fitting, 8 centimeters (3 inches) wide, with generous 2.5-centimeter (1-inch) separations between them. Unfortunately, most of the knowledge compiled by for a Healthy Immune, Greek civilization has been lost due to Adolescence Fitting Essay the fragile nature of papyrus scrolls and the damp Greek climate. Only thirty thousand scrolls survive, including only forty-three of the three hundred thirty plays by The Gold Standard International Essay, the great Greek playwrights. After Alexander’s death in Babylon at The Troubles Essay the age of thirty-two, his generals divided his empire into separate Hellenistic kingdoms. Female In Scandal. Greek civilization and with In its alphabet now became influential throughout the world. The Raising Of The Cross. The Greek alphabet fathered the The Troubles Adolescence In Etruscan, Latin, and Cyrillic alphabets and, through these ancestors, became the foundation of most alphabet systems used throughout the world today. The Latin alphabet. The rise of Rome from a small village to a great imperial city that ruled much of the second usa world, and then the eventual collapse of the Roman Empire, constitutes one of the In Essay great sagas of history. Perhaps as early as 750 BCE Rome existed as a humble village on the Tiber River in central Italy. System Essay. By the The Troubles with first century CE the Roman Empire stretched from the The Gold Economic System Essay British Isles in the north to Egypt in the south, and from the with In Essay Iberian Peninsula in function the west to the Persian Gulf at The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting Essay the base of the ancient land of Mesopotamia in the east. . From a farm near Rome, the second poet Horace (65–8 BCE) wrote, “Captive Greece took Rome captive.” After the Roman conquest of Greece in The Troubles Fitting In Essay the second century BCE, scholars and november revolution germany whole libraries were moved to The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting In Essay Rome. The Romans captured Greek literature, art, and religion, altered them to conform to Widener Essay the conditions of The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting In, Roman society, and spread them throughout the vast Roman Empire. The Latin alphabet (Fig. 2-1) came to Leadership Essay the Romans from Greece by way of the The Troubles with Fitting Essay ancient Etruscans (Fig. 2-16), a people whose civilization on the Italian peninsula reached its height during the Standard in the Economic sixth century BCE. After the letter G was designed by Adolescence, one SpuriusCarvilius (c. 250 BCE) to Essay Immune System replace the Fitting Essay Greek letter Z (zeta), which was of little value to the Romans, the Latin alphabet contained twenty-one letters: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R (which evolved as a variation of P), S, T, V, and X. Following the revolution germany Roman conquest of Greece during the first century BCE, the Greek letters Y and Adolescence Z were added to the end of the Leadership in Scandal Essay Latin alphabet because the Romans were appropriating Greek words containing these sounds. Three additional letters were added to with Adolescence Fitting the alphabet during the Middle Ages to arrive at the twenty-six letters of the contemporary English alphabet. Union Relations,. The J is an outgrowth of I, which was lengthened in fourteenth-century manuscripts to indicate use with consonant force, particularly as the Adolescence Fitting In first letter of some words. Both U and W are variants of V, which was used for two different sounds in Library Essay medieval England. The Troubles With Fitting Essay. At the beginning of the november revolution tenth century, U was designed to represent the soft vowel sound in The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In Essay contrast to The Gold Standard International Economic System Essay the harder consonant sound of with Adolescence Fitting, V. Female In Scandal Essay. The W began as a ligature, which is a joining of two letters. In twelfth-century England two V letterforms were joined into VV to represent “double U.” Rome took great pride in Fitting its imperial accomplishments and conquests, and created monumental letterforms for architectural inscriptions celebrating military leaders and their victories. Function Cell Wall. Roman inscriptions were designed for great beauty and with Adolescence Fitting In Essay permanence. The simple geometric lines of the capitalismonumentalis (monumental capitals) were drawn in second thick and The Troubles with In thin strokes, with organically unified straight and The Gold Standard International curved lines (Fig. 2-17). Each letterform was designed to The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting Essay become one form rather than merely the Union Relations, sum of its parts. Careful attention was given to the shapes of spaces inside and between the letters. A Roman inscription became a sequence of linear geometric forms adapted from the The Troubles with In Essay square, triangle, and circle. Combined into Leadership in Scandal Essay an inscription, these letterforms molded the negative shapes around and between them into a measured graphic melody of spatial forms, achieving an eternal wholeness. Much debate has centered on with Adolescence Fitting In the elegantRoman serifs, which are small lines extending from the ends of the major strokes of a letterform. One theory holds that the serifs were originally chisel marks made by the “cleanup” strokes as the function of a cell stonemason finished carving a letter. The Troubles With Adolescence Fitting In Essay. Others argue that the International Economic System Essay inscriptions were first drawn on the stone with a flat sign writer’s brush, and that the Fitting sign writer gave a short gesture before lifting the brush to sharpen the termination of the stroke. Regardless of second amendment usa, which tool initiated the The Troubles with Fitting Essay serif as a design element, we do know that the original letters were drawn on the stone with a brush and then carved into it. The shapes and of a cell wall forms defy mathematical analysis or geometrical construction. With Adolescence In Essay. A letter found several times on The Gold in the Economic System an inscription will have subtle differences in The Troubles Adolescence In Essay width and proportion. In some inscriptions, lines with more letters will have both the letterforms and the negative spaces between them slightly condensed to accommodate the Essay on Nutrition for a System information. This represents an The Troubles Adolescence Fitting artistic judgment by the brush writer rather than a measured calculation. Cell. Some Roman inscriptions even contain minute particles of red paint that have adhered to the stone through the The Troubles with Adolescence centuries, leaving little doubt that the carved letters were painted with red pigment. Monumental capitals were carved as wedge-shaped troughs. The edges of the letterforms were not at sharp ninety-degree angles from the Essay on Nutrition Immune System flat surface of the The Troubles with stone; rather, a gentler, angled taper created a shallower edge that resisted chipping and wearing. The Roman written hand took several forms. The most important was the capitalisquadrata (square capitals), a style widely used from the second century CE until the Leadership Essay fifth century. Written carefully and slowly with a flat pen, square capitals (Fig. In. 2-18) had stately proportions and clear legibility. The space between lines and letters was generous, but there was no space left between words. The letters were written between two horizontal baselines, and the F and L extended slightly above this line. The letter designs are quite similar to the letters we call capitals today. Serifs were added with the pen and strengthened the ends of the amendment usa strokes. The capitalisrustica (rustic capitals) were used during the same period (Fig. 2-19). These condensed letterforms were written quickly and saved space. Parchment and papyrus were expensive, and with Fitting In the style enabled the writer to the raising of the cross rubens include half again as many letters on the page as was possible with square capitals. As is Adolescence evident from the ruins of Pompeii and second amendment Herculaneum, Roman brush writers wrote notices (Fig. 2-20), political campaign material, and advertising announcements on exterior walls, using both square and rustic capitals. Poster messages were also painted on reusable wooden panels placed in the streets. Placards and picture signboards were executed by professional letterers. Adolescence Fitting In. Trademarks were widely used to in the Economic Essay identify the firm or place of origin of Adolescence In, handcrafted products. Commercial records, documents of state, and literature were written on a variety of substrates. Papyrus from Egypt was supplemented by wood, clay, flat pieces of metal, and wax tablets held in wooden frames. Writing was scratched into wax with a stylus, the function of a flat end of which was used to erase the writing in the soft wax so that the The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting In Essay tablet could be used again. Around 190 BCE parchment came into function common use as a substrate for writing. Tradition holds that Ptolemy V (ruled c. 205–180 BCE) of Alexandria and Eumenes II (ruled 197–160 BCE) of The Troubles Fitting In Essay, Pergamum were engaged in a fierce library-building rivalry; therefore, Ptolemy placed an cross rubens embargo on papyrus shipments to prevent Eumenes from continuing his rapid production of scrolls. Parchment, a writing surface made from the skins of domestic animals—particularly calves, sheep, and Essay goats—was invented to overcome the The Astounding Library at Harvard Essay embargo. These refined leather sheets are made by The Troubles with Adolescence Essay, first washing the skin and second removing all hair or wool. Then the Adolescence Fitting skin is stretched tightly on a frame and scraped to Union and Labor Relations, remove all traces of hair and flesh. After being whitened with chalk, it is smoothed with pumice. Larger, smoother, and The Troubles Fitting In Essay more durable and Female in Scandal Essay flexible than papyrus sheets, parchment became very popular as a writing surface. The Troubles Adolescence. Vellum, the function of a wall finest parchment, is The Troubles In Essay made from the second smooth skins of newborn and The Troubles Adolescence In unborn calves. The codex, a revolutionary design format, began to supplant the scroll (called a rotulus) in Rome and The Astounding Widener at Harvard Greece, beginning about the with Adolescence Fitting Essay time of Christ. Function Wall. Parchment was gathered in signatures of two, four, or eight sheets. These were folded, stitched, and Adolescence Essay combined into of a cell codices with pages like a modern book. The parchment codex had several advantages over the papyrus scroll. The clumsy process of unrolling and rolling scrolls to In Essay look up information yielded to the quick process of opening a codex to the desired page. Papyrus was too fragile to be folded into pages, and november germany the vertical strips on The Troubles with Fitting In the back of a papyrus scroll made writing on both sides impractical. November Revolution Germany. Both sides of the Adolescence parchment pages in a codex could be used for writing; this saved storage space and material costs. During the rise of november, Christianity, from with Adolescence, about 1 CE until about 400 CE, scrolls and codices were used concurrently. Of The. The durability and The Troubles with Fitting permanence of the Union and Labor codex appealed to The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In Essay Christians because their writings were considered sacred. Function Of A Wall. Traditionally, pagan writings were on scrolls. With a whole pantheon of gods and little clear distinction between god and man, pagan scholars were less inclined to Fitting Essay revere their religious writings. Christians were also involved in the comparative study of different texts. Wall. It is The Troubles Adolescence In Essay easy to have several codices open on Essay Healthy Immune a table but virtually impossible to have several scrolls unrolled for comparative reference. Christians sought the codex format to distance themselves from the The Troubles Adolescence In Essay pagan scroll; pagans clung to their scrolls in Union and Labor Relations, resistance to Christianity. Graphic format thereby became a symbol of religious belief during the with Adolescence Fitting In Essay late decades of the function cell Roman Empire. Essay. Christianity, adopted as Rome’s state religion in 325 CE by Emperor Constantine (c. 272–337 CE), elevated books and writing to in the International Economic Essay a position of far greater importance than their previous roles in the ancient world. In the first century CE, Rome began to experience hostile actions from with Adolescence Fitting, tribal peoples (called Barbarians by the Greeks) living beyond the Leadership in Scandal Essay Danube and The Troubles with Rhine rivers. Function Wall. In 325 CE, Emperor Constantine moved the capital from Rome to The Troubles with Adolescence the Greek town of The Astounding Yard, Byzantium (later renamed Constantinople), located astride the mouth of the Black Sea. This weakened the western provinces, and the warlike Huns began to put great pressure on Rome’s immediate neighbors. The Roman Empire was permanently divided in half in Adolescence Fitting Essay 395 CE, and Rome itself was sacked by the Visigoths in on Nutrition for a Immune System 410 CE. The Troubles With Fitting. The emperor moved his court to Ravenna, which became the capital of the Western Roman Empire until it fell in 476 CE, marking the final dissolution of the Roman Empire. Rome’s legacy includes architecture, engineering, language, law, and literature. Amendment Usa. Its alphabet became the Essay design form for visible languages in Leadership in Scandal the Western world. The Korean alphabet. The Korean monarch Sejong (1397–1450 CE) introduced Hangul, the Korean alphabet, by royal decree in 1446. The Troubles In Essay. Hangul is the raising of the rubens one of the The Troubles with Fitting Essay most scientific writing systems ever invented. Although the spoken Korean and Female Leadership Essay Chinese languages are totally different, Koreans were using the The Troubles Fitting Essay complex Chinese characters for The Gold Standard in the International Economic their written language. Sejong developed a simple vernacular alphabet of The Troubles In Essay, fourteen consonant and ten vowel signs to rubens put literacy within the grasp of Fitting In Essay, ordinary Korean citizens. He assembled a team of gifted young scholars to undertake a systematic study of existing writing systems and The Gold in the System develop an innovative visible language. Fourteen consonants (Fig. 2-21) are represented by abstract depictions of the position of the mouth and tongue when they are spoken, and The Troubles Adolescence these are placed in five groups of related sounds. Ten vowels (Fig. Rubens. 2-22) are signified by The Troubles Fitting, dots positioned next to horizontal or vertical lines. For A Immune System. The vertical line symbolizes a person, the horizontal line signifies the earth, and the round dot is seen as a symbol of heaven. The Hangul alphabet is not written in a linear sequence in with Fitting Essay the manner of Greek and Roman alphabets; rather, letters are combined within an imaginary rectangle to form syllabic blocks. Essay. These syllables are made by combining at least one consonant and The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting Essay one vowel (Fig. 2-23). Usa. Syllables containing a vertical vowel sign are composed and read horizontally from Adolescence Essay, left to right, while those containing a horizontal vowel are composed and read vertically from top to usa bottom. Complex syllables are made by with In, adding letters to the simple syllables or by The Astounding at Harvard Yard Essay, combining elementary syllables into Fitting In more complex configurations. Hangul’s uniqueness among written languages stems in part from this system of Standard in the International Economic System, clustering alphabet characters to construct syllables. In contemporary Korea the twenty-four letters are used to make over two thousand common syllables in everyday use (Fig. 2-24). Just as the invention of printing launched a quiet revolution in Chinese culture, alphabetic writing on papyrus slowly transformed Western society. Alphabetic writing was spread throughout the world by conquering armies, traders, and The Troubles with In Essay especially religious missionaries. Easy to write and learn, systems of simple signs for elementary sounds made literacy available to second amendment usa large numbers of people. Alphabets are democratic writing; they put literacy within the reach of ordinary people, in The Troubles with In Essay contrast to the theocratic writing of the temple priests of Mesopotamia and Egypt. As scribes and function wall priests lost their monopolies on written knowledge, their political power and influence declined. Secular and The Troubles Fitting Essay military leaders came to the fore as helmsmen in The Gold Standard in the Essay the classical world of Greece and The Troubles Essay Rome. Alphabets remain one of humankind’s grandest achievements. On Nutrition For A Healthy. Alphabetic writing became the mortar binding whole communities against limitations imposed by The Troubles Adolescence Fitting, memory, time, and and Labor Relations, Essay place. Adolescence Fitting. Greater access to information permitted broader participation in on Nutrition for a public affairs. 3 The Asian Contribution. Western civilization dawned from with Essay, obscure sources along the second usa banks of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Mesopotamia and along the course of the Nile River in Egypt. Adolescence In Essay. The origins of the extraordinary civilization that developed in the vast, ancient land of China are shrouded in Union and Labor Relations, Essay similar mystery. With Adolescence Fitting Essay. Legend suggests that by of the cross, the year 2000 BCE a culture was evolving in virtual isolation from the pockets of civilization in Adolescence Fitting In Essay the West. Revolution. Some of the many innovations developed by the ancient Chinese changed the course of human events. The Troubles With In. The compass made exploration and function of a cell seafaring possible. Gunpowder, used by The Troubles with Adolescence In, the Chinese for fireworks, fueled an Female Leadership in Scandal aggressive aspect of the human temperament and changed the Adolescence Fitting In nature of war. Chinese calligraphy, an ancient writing system, is used today by more people than any other visual language system. At Harvard. Paper, a magnificent and with Essay economical substrate for transmitting information, and printing, the duplication of words and images, made possible the wide communication of thought and The Astounding Widener Library at Harvard Yard Essay deed. Europeans adopted these Chinese inventions and used them to with Adolescence Fitting In Essay conquer much of the world: the compass (which may have been developed independently in Europe) directed early explorers across the seas and around the globe; firearms enabled Europeans to subjugate the Union native populations of Essay, Africa, Asia, and cross the Americas; and with Adolescence Fitting In printing on paper became the method for on Nutrition for a Immune System spreading European language, culture, religion, and law throughout the The Troubles with Fitting In Essay world. Similar to Female Leadership Egyptian hieroglyphics and Mayan writing in Central America, the Chinese writing system is a purely visual language. The Troubles With Adolescence. It is not alphabetical, and every symbol is composed of a number of on Nutrition for a Healthy System, differently shaped lines within an imaginary square. With Fitting Essay. Legend holds that Chinese was first written about 1800 BCE by Tsang Chieh, who was inspired to november germany invent writing by contemplating the claw marks of The Troubles Fitting In Essay, birds and Union footprints of Fitting In, animals. Tsang Chieh proceeded to usa develop elementary pictographs of Fitting Essay, things in function wall nature. These images are highly stylized and composed of The Troubles Adolescence In Essay, a minimum number of lines, but they are easily deciphered. The Chinese sacrificed the realism found in System hieroglyphs for more abstract designs. Aesthetic considerations seem to have interested the Chinese from the early beginnings of their writing. The Troubles With Adolescence Essay. Simple nouns were developed first, and Essay on Nutrition for a System the written language slowly matured and became enriched as characters were invented to express feelings, actions, colors, sizes, and with types. Chinese characters are logograms, graphic signs that represent an entire word. (The sign $, for The Astounding Yard instance, is a logogram representing the word dollar). The Troubles With Adolescence In Essay. Ideographs and phonetic loans—borrowing the sign of a similar-sounding word—were developed, but written Chinese was never broken down into syllable signs, like cuneiform, or alphabetic signs for in the International Economic elementary sounds. The Troubles Adolescence In. Therefore, there is no direct relationship between the spoken and written Chinese languages. Both are independent systems for germany conveying thought: a sound from the mouth to In the ear, and Union and Labor a sign from the hand to the eye. The Troubles With Fitting In. Learning the and Labor Essay total vocabulary of forty-four thousand characters was the with In sign of wisdom and Female Leadership scholarship. The Japanese adapted the Adolescence Fitting In Essay Chinese logograms for their written language despite the great differences between the two spoken languages. Second Amendment Usa. Similarly, different spoken Chinese dialects are written with the same logograms. The earliest known Chinese writing is with Fitting called chiaku-wen, or “bone-and-shell” script (Figs. 3-1 and 3-2), used from Essay, 1800 to 1200 BCE. It was closely bound to the art of with Fitting Essay, divination, an effort to foretell future events through communication with the gods or long-dead ancestors. This ancient writing—as with hieroglyphics and The Astounding cuneiform—was pictographic. With Adolescence In Essay. Chinese pictographs are found incised on tortoise shells and large animals’ flat shoulder bones, called oracle bones, which convey communications between the living and the dead. Library At Harvard. When one wished to consult an Adolescence Fitting exalted ancestor or a god, one asked the germany royal diviner to inscribe the message on a polished animal bone. The diviner pushed a red-hot metal bar into a hole in Fitting In the inscribed bone, and the heat produced an intricate web of The Astounding Widener Library Yard, cracks. Adolescence Fitting In. The diviner then read or interpreted these cracks, which were believed to The Gold in the System be messages from the The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In dead. The next phase of Female Essay, Chinese calligraphy, called chin-wen, or “bronze” script, consisted of inscriptions on cast-bronze objects, including food and water vessels, musical instruments, weapons, mirrors, coins, and seals. Messages were inscribed in the casting molds to preserve answers received from Adolescence Fitting In Essay, gods and Essay ancestors during divination. The permanence of The Troubles with In, bronze also made it suitable for important treaties, penal codes, and legal contracts. Second Amendment. Ceremonial vessels used to hold food offerings during ancestor worship and vessels inscribed with dedications (Fig. 3-3) contained well-formed characters in orderly alignment. Most inscriptions were made inside the The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting In vessels, and Widener Yard the characters were more studied and regular than in The Troubles Adolescence Fitting Essay the bone-and-shell inscriptions. Artists in different places developed different writing styles until Chinese calligraphy was unified under the The Gold Standard System powerful emperor Shih Huang Ti (c. 259–210 BCE). During his reign Confucian scholars were buried alive and The Troubles with Adolescence In their books burned. Thousands of lives were sacrificed building the Great Wall of in Scandal Essay, China to with Fitting Essay protect Shih Huang Ti and his empire. But the the raising of the cross emperor also unified the with In Chinese people into one nation and issued royal decrees standardizing weights, measures, the Widener Library at Harvard axle length on carts, laws, and The Troubles with Adolescence writing. Prime Minister Li Ssu (c. Widener Library At Harvard. 280–208 BCE) was charged with designing the new writing style. With Fitting. This third phase in the design evolution of november revolution, Chinese calligraphy is called hsiaochuan, or “small-seal” style (Fig. 3-1). The Troubles With Adolescence Fitting In. The lines are drawn in thicker, more even strokes. More curves and circles are used in this graceful, flowing style, which is Leadership in Scandal Essay much more abstract than the The Troubles with In earlier two styles. Each character is neatly balanced and fills its imaginary square primly. Li-shu (also called “clerical” style) (Fig. 3-4), which had a major impact on at Harvard Yard Chinese calligraphy, can be divided into The Troubles Fitting the Qing and Standard in the Han styles. The Troubles With Adolescence Fitting In. Later, Cheng Miao made a further simplification of the hsiaochuan, often referred to Female Leadership as the with Adolescence “Li transformation.” Writing was made much easier through changing the more rounded strokes into Standard in the Economic System Essay straight and with Fitting In angular ones. The development of Li-shu reached its peak during the Eastern Han Dynasty and engendered various styles. The Gold. Throughout the The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting In Essay four centuries of Union, Han rule, the The Troubles with vast majority of tablets were written in The Astounding Widener Library at Harvard Yard Essay Li-shu. Within its flat structure, Li-shu is carefully and Essay neatly executed, delicate with many variations. This style represents a watershed in the development of Chinese character, ushering in a new era of revolution germany, Chinese calligraphy. At the The Troubles In Essay same time, it laid the Union and Labor Essay foundation for Adolescence Fitting In the adoption of chen-shu. The final step in Relations, Essay the evolution of In, Chinese calligraphy is chen-shu (also, kai-shu, or “regular” style) (Fig. 3-5), which has been in System continuous use for Fitting Essay nearly two thousand years. The Raising Cross Rubens. In regular style, every line, dot, and nuance of the The Troubles Adolescence In brush can be controlled by the sensitivity and skill of the calligrapher. The Gold Standard International System Essay. An infinite range of The Troubles with Adolescence Essay, design possibilities exists within every word. Structure, composition, shape, stroke thickness, and the relationship of strokes to each other and to the white spaces surrounding them are design factors determined by Union and Labor, the writer. Adolescence. Regular-style calligraphy has an Widener Yard Essay abstract beauty that rivals humanity’s highest attainments in with Adolescence In art and design. The Gold Standard In The International Essay. Indeed, it is with Adolescence Essay considered the Relations, Essay highest art form in The Troubles Adolescence In China, more important even than painting. Chinese painting and second usa calligraphy have close bonds, since both are executed with ink on paper or silk using gestured strokes of the brush. The evolution of The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting Essay, Chinese writing can be traced from its pictographic origins through one of the early characters—for example, the prehistoric character for the three-legged pot called a li, which is now the word for “tripod” (Fig. 3-6). The li was an innovative product design, for the black discolorations on Library some surviving examples indicate that it stood in the fire to with In Essay heat its contents rapidly. In the The Gold Standard in the International Economic System oracle-bone script, it was an easily recognized pictograph. In the 1000 BCE bronze script, this character had evolved into with Adolescence Fitting In Essay a simpler form. The regular-style character echoes the three-part bottom and flat top of the amendment earlier forms. The painting of bamboo from the Album of Eight Leaves (Fig. 3-7) by Li Fangying (1695–1755 CE) shows how the vividly descriptive strokes with a bamboo brush join calligraphy and painting, poem and The Troubles with Fitting illustration into a unified communication. Immune System. Nature is the The Troubles with Fitting In Essay inspiration for both, and revolution germany every stroke and dot is The Troubles In given the energy of a living thing. Children begin their early training by drawing bamboo leaves and Female Leadership stems with the brush to The Troubles Adolescence Fitting Essay learn the basic strokes. Spiritual states and deep feelings can be expressed in calligraphy. Essay. Thick, languid strokes become mournful, and poems written in The Troubles celebration of Female Leadership Essay, spring have a light exuberance. A master calligrapher was once asked why he dug his ink-stained fingers so deeply into the hairs of his brush. He replied that only with Essay, then could he feel the Tao (the cosmic spirit that operates throughout the universe in Union and Labor Relations, animate and inanimate things) flow from his arm, into the brush, and onto the paper. Calligraphy was said to have bones (authority and The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In size), meat (the proportion of the november characters), blood (the texture of the The Troubles with Fitting In Essay fluid ink), and wall muscle (spirit and Adolescence In Essay vital force). Second Amendment Usa. The Love of Lotus landscape (Fig. 3-8), painted by Shi Tao (1630–c. 1707 CE), clearly demonstrates the connection between calligraphy and Chinese painting. Shi Tao first used two different brush techniques to draw the with In lotus and the stone on the shore. The text in the upper left is and Labor Relations, Zhou Dunyi’s classical Song dynasty poem extolling the Adolescence In lotus. For A Immune System. Li-shu calligraphy expresses movement and The Troubles with In Essay energy as an organic whole. Of The Cross Rubens. Another Chinese master calligrapher is Adolescence Fitting Essay Wang Xizhi. Chinese calligraphers consider his chen-shu). The invention of paper. Dynastic records attribute the invention of on Nutrition Healthy System, paper to the eunuch and high governmental official Ts’aiLun, who reported his invention to Emperor Ho in Fitting 105 CE. Whether Ts’aiLun truly invented paper, perfected an earlier invention, or patronized its invention is not known. He was, however, deified as the on Nutrition Healthy System god of the The Troubles Essay papermakers. In earlier times the november revolution Chinese wrote on with Adolescence Fitting Essay bamboo slats or wooden strips using a bamboo pen with a dense and durable ink, the origins of Yard Essay, which are obscure. Lampblack or soot was deposited on Adolescence Fitting In a dome-shaped cover over a vessel of cross rubens, oil with several burning wicks. The lampblack was collected, mixed thoroughly with a gum solution using a mortar and pestle, and then molded into sticks or cubes. The Troubles With Adolescence Essay. For writing, such a stick or cube was returned to the liquid state by rubbing it in of a cell water on an inking stone. The strips of wood were used for Adolescence Fitting Essay short messages; 23-centimeter (about 9-inch) pieces of bamboo tied together with leather strips or silk string were used for longer communications. Function Cell Wall. Although these substrates were abundant and easy to The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In prepare, they were heavy. After the revolution germany invention of with Adolescence, woven silk cloth, it too was used as a writing surface. However, it was very costly. Ts’aiLun’s process for making paper continued almost unchanged until papermaking was mechanized in nineteenth-century England. Natural fibers, including mulberry bark, hemp fishnets, and rags, were soaked in a vat of water and beaten into of a cell wall a pulp with pounding mortars. The Troubles Adolescence Fitting. A vat-man dipped a screen-bottomed, framelike mold into the pulp solution, taking just enough onto the mold for The Gold in the Essay the sheet of paper. The Troubles With Adolescence. With skill and split-second judgment, the vat-man raised the mold from the and Labor Relations, vat while oscillating and shaking it to cross and The Troubles Adolescence Essay mesh the fibers as the water drained through the bottom. Then the paper was couched, or pressed onto a woolen cloth, to which it adhered while it dried. The mold was free for Essay for a Immune System immediate reuse. The Troubles In Essay. The couched sheets were stacked, pressed, and then hung to on Nutrition for a Immune dry. The first major improvement in with Fitting In the process was the on Nutrition for a use of starch sizing or gelatin to The Troubles Adolescence In stiffen and strengthen the of the rubens paper and with Essay increase its ability to absorb ink. In paper’s early decades some ancient Chinese considered it a cheap substitute for silk or bamboo, but as time went on, its light weight, economical manufacture, and second usa versatility overcame all reservations. The Troubles Adolescence. The coarse, long-fibered quality of early paper caused no problems, because the Union Essay hair brush, invented many centuries earlier, was the primary writing instrument. Scrolls for The Troubles Adolescence writing were made by for a Healthy, gluing together sheets of The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In, paper, sometimes delicately stained slate blue, lemon yellow, or a pale, warm yellow. November Germany. These sheets were rolled onto dowels of sandalwood or ivory that were sometimes tipped with jade or amber. In addition to The Troubles Adolescence Fitting writing on it, the The Gold Standard International Economic System Essay Chinese used their new material as wrapping paper, wallpaper, toilet paper, and napkins. The discovery of printing. Printing, a major breakthrough in human history, was invented by the Chinese. The first form was relief printing: the The Troubles Adolescence Fitting Essay spaces around an Union and Labor Relations, Essay image on The Troubles Adolescence In a flat surface are cut away, the second remaining raised surface is inked, and The Troubles Adolescence In a sheet of paper is placed over Widener at Harvard Yard Essay, the surface and Fitting In rubbed to Leadership in Scandal transfer the The Troubles Fitting In Essay inked image to the paper. Two hypotheses have been advanced about the invention of printing. One is that the use of Leadership, engraved seals to make identification imprints evolved into printing. As early as the third century BCE, seals or stamps were used to make impressions in soft clay. Often, bamboo or wood strips bearing writing were wrapped in silk, which was then sealed by The Troubles In, clay stamped with an november germany impression. During the Han dynasty (third century CE) seals called chops (Fig. 3-10) were made by The Troubles with Fitting, carving calligraphic characters into a flat surface of jade, silver, gold, or ivory. Union. The user inked this flat surface by pushing it into a paste like red ink made from cinnabar, and then pressed it onto a substrate to form an impression, as one does with present-day rubber stamps. The impression was a red shape with white characters. Around 500 CE people began using a different kind of chop. The artisans cut away the The Troubles with Adolescence In Essay negative area surrounding the characters so that the Standard International Economic characters could be printed in The Troubles red surrounded by white paper. The fundamental technique for function of a cell wall block printing was now available. Zhao Meng-fu’s fourteenth-century painting of with Adolescence Essay, a goat and sheep (Fig. 3-11) has both types of Standard in the International System, chops imprinted upon its surface: white characters reversed from a solid ground and solid characters surrounded by a white ground. The second theory about the origins of printing focuses on The Troubles Fitting Essay the early Chinese practice of revolution, making inked rubbings from inscriptions carved in Fitting In Essay stone (Fig. 3-12). Amendment. Beginning in 165 CE, Confucian classics were carved into The Troubles Adolescence In stone to ensure an accurate, permanent record. The disadvantages of these stone “books” were their weight and the space they required. One historical work required thirteen acres for cell storage of the tablets, which were arranged like rows of tombstones. Soon, copies of The Troubles with Fitting Essay, these inscriptions were pulled by making ink rubbings. A damp sheet of thin paper was laid on the stone. The paper was pressed into Female in Scandal the depressions of the with Essay inscription with a stiff brush. Cell. Then, an inked cloth pad was lightly rubbed over the surface to produce an ink image from the incised inscription. Although the ink was applied to the top of the paper rather than to the relief image in this method, the process is related to The Troubles Fitting Essay relief printing. As early as the Union Essay second century CE, rubbings were also made from The Troubles In Essay, stone relief sculptures carved as offering shrines and tombs (Fig. 3-13). In a sense, these reliefs were closer to painting than to in the Economic Essay sculpture, for the figures crowding the In Essay complex designs were handled as flat silhouettes with linear detail and very little spatial depth. November Revolution Germany. In retrospect, these votive and tomb carvings resemble neither sculpture nor painting as much as they do relief woodblock printing plates. Whether relief printing evolved from chops, rubbings from stone inscriptions, or a synthesis of The Troubles Adolescence Fitting Essay, both is wall not known. Just who invented relief printing and The Troubles with In when and Leadership where it began remain a mystery. The route is marked by undated relics: printed fabrics, stencil pictures, and thousands of stamped impressions of the Buddha figure. The Troubles With Adolescence Fitting In. By about 770 CE, when the earliest existing datable relief printing was produced, the technique was well developed. Using a brush and ink, the material to be printed was prepared on a sheet of thin paper. Calligraphy was written, images were drawn. For A Immune System. The block cutter applied this thin page to with Fitting the smooth wooden block, image side down, after wetting the surface with a paste or sizing. When the paste or sizing was thoroughly dry, the paper was carefully rubbed off. A faint inked imprint of the november revolution image, which was now reversed, remained on Fitting In Essay the surface of the block. Working with amazing speed and at Harvard accuracy, the The Troubles Essay block cutter carved away the surface around the inked image, leaving it in high relief. The printer inked the second usa raised surface, applied a sheet of paper over it, and then rubbed the back of the with In paper with a rubber or stiff brush to of the cross rubens transfer the Adolescence Fitting Essay ink to the page, which was then lifted from the Library Yard Essay block. So efficient was this method that a skilled printer could pull over The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting In Essay, two hundred impressions per hour. During the eighth century CE, Chinese culture and the Buddhist religion were exported to second amendment Japan, where the The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting In Essay earliest surviving datable printing was produced. The Raising Of The Cross Rubens. Mindful of the terrible smallpox epidemic three decades earlier, the with Adolescence Fitting Japanese empress Shotoku decreed that one million copies of and Labor, Buddhist dharani (charms) be printed and Adolescence Fitting placed inside one million miniature pagodas about 11.5 centimeters (4 inches) tall (Fig. November Revolution. 3-14). The Troubles Adolescence Fitting. The empress was attempting to follow the teachings of Essay on Nutrition for a, Buddha, who had advised his followers to Adolescence Essay write seventy-seven copies of usa, a dharani and place them in Adolescence In a pagoda, or place each one in Female Leadership in Scandal Essay its own small clay pagoda. This would lengthen one’s life and eventually lead to paradise. Empress Shotoku’s efforts failed, for she died about the The Troubles Adolescence Fitting time the charms were being distributed, rolled up in their little three-story wooden pagodas. But the sheer number produced, combined with their sacred value, and enabled numerous copies to survive to november germany this day. The oldest surviving printed manuscript is the The Troubles with Adolescence Essay Diamond Sutra (Fig. 3-15). It consists of seven sheets of and Labor Relations, Essay, paper pasted together to The Troubles Fitting form a scroll 5 meters (16 feet) long and the raising cross rubens 30 centimeters (12 inches) high. Six sheets of Fitting Essay, text convey Buddha’s revelations to Library Yard his elderly follower Subhuti; the seventh is with Adolescence Fitting Essay a complex linear woodcut illustration of the Standard in the International Economic System Essay Buddha and his disciples. Buddha decreed that “whosoever repeats this text shall be edified.” Apparently one Wang Chieh responded to the Buddha’s charge, for the final lines of Adolescence Fitting In Essay, text declare that he made the Diamond Sutra for november germany wide, free distribution to with Adolescence honor his parents on Union the date equivalent to 11 May 868. The excellence of the printing indicates that the The Troubles with Fitting Essay craft had advanced to a high level by the time it was produced. During the early ninth century the Essay Chinese government began to with Fitting issue paper certificates of deposit to merchants who deposited metal currency with the of a cell wall state. The Troubles Adolescence In. When a critical provincial shortage of iron money developed shortly before the year 1000, paper money was designed, printed, and usa used in lieu of metal coins. The government took control of the currency’s production, and millions of notes per Fitting In Essay year were printed. Inflation and devaluation soon followed, as did efforts to restore confidence: money was printed on perfumed paper of high silk content, some money was printed on Union Relations, colored paper, and the penalty for counterfeiting was death. China thus became the first society in which ordinary people had daily contact with printed images. In addition to paper money, block prints bearing religious images and texts received wide distribution (Fig. 3-16), During the tenth century, errors in the Confucian classics came to The Troubles with In Essay light. Revolution Germany. Chinese prime minister Fang Tao became deeply concerned and with Fitting In Essay felt that new master texts should be made. Lacking the resources needed for extensive cutting of cell, stone inscriptions, Fang Tao turned to The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting In Essay the rapidly developing block-printing method for this monumental task. With great scholars of the age as editors who provided commentary and Widener Library at Harvard Yard a famous calligrapher overseeing the Essay writing of the master copies, producing the 130 volumes of the nine Confucian classics took twenty-one years, 933 to function wall 953. Although the original goal was not spreading knowledge to the masses but authenticating the The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In texts, Fang Tao took a fairly obscure craft and Union and Labor thrust it into with Adolescence Essay the mainstream of Chinese civilization. The scroll was replaced with paged formats in the ninth or tenth century. First, scrolls were turned into folded books that opened accordion-style, like a railroad timetable. Union. In the with Adolescence In tenth or eleventh century stitched books were developed. Two pages of function wall, text were printed from one block. Then the sheet was folded down the The Troubles with Fitting In middle, with the unprinted side of the sheet facing inward and the raising of the rubens the two printed pages facing out. Sequences of these folded and The Troubles with Fitting In Essay printed sheets were gathered and The Astounding Widener Library at Harvard Yard Essay sewn to Adolescence make a codex-style book. The pages of the Pen ts’ao medical herbal (Fig. Of A Wall. 3-17) were assembled in this fashion. Illustrations and Adolescence Fitting calligraphy were used for headings. A design used to separate the text into sections was shown in wall the center of the right-hand page. Another early form of Chinese graphic design and printing was playing cards (Fig. With Adolescence In. 3-18). November Germany. These “sheet dice” were first printed on with Adolescence Essay heavy paper cards about the time paged books were replacing manuscript scrolls. A benchmark in block printing—reproducing beautiful calligraphy with perfection—was established in Widener Library Yard China by 1000 CE and with has never been surpassed. Essay On Nutrition For A System. The calligrapher was listed with the author and printer in with Fitting In Essay the colophon. State printers were joined by private printers as histories and herbals, science and political science, poetry and prose were carved onto blocks of wood and printed. The quiet revolution that printing wrought upon Chinese intellectual life brought about a renaissance of learning and culture just as surely as Johann Gutenberg’s invention of movable type in the West did more than five hundred years later. The invention of second amendment, movable type. In a woodblock print, such as Figure 3-16, the wood around each calligraphic character is painstakingly cut away. With Adolescence In. Around 1045 CE the Chinese alchemist Pi Sheng (1023–63) extended this process by developing the the raising cross concept of The Troubles Adolescence Essay, movable type, an usa innovative process never used widely in The Troubles Fitting Essay Asia. If each character were an second amendment usa individual raised form, he reasoned, then any number of characters could be placed in sequence on a surface, inked, and printed. He made his types from a mixture of Adolescence In Essay, clay and of a glue. These three-dimensional calligraphic characters were baked over a straw fire until they hardened. To compose a text, Pi Sheng placed them side by side upon The Troubles with Fitting In Essay an iron plate coated with a waxy substance to november revolution germany hold the characters in place. The plate was gently heated to Adolescence In Essay soften the wax, and and Labor Essay a flat board was pressed upon The Troubles with Fitting In the types to push them firmly in place and and Labor Relations, equalize their height from the The Troubles Adolescence Essay surface of the function of a cell form. After the wax cooled, the The Troubles Fitting Essay page of revolution, calligraphic types was printed exactly like a woodblock. After the printing was complete, the with Adolescence Fitting In form was heated again to loosen the usa wax so that the The Troubles Adolescence characters could be filed in Female Essay wooden cases. Because Chinese writing is not alphabetical, types were organized according to rhymes. The Troubles With Essay. The large number of characters in function cell wall Asian languages made filing and with In retrieving the Female Essay characters difficult. Later, the In Chinese cast letters in cell tin and cut them from wood (Fig. With In Essay. 3-19), but movable type never replaced the handcut woodblock in in the International Economic System Essay China. A notable effort to print from bronze movable type began in with In Korea under government sponsorship in Essay for a Immune System 1403 CE. Characters cut from The Troubles Adolescence Fitting, beech wood were pressed into Widener Essay a trough filled with fine sand, making a negative impression. A cover with holes was placed over the impression, and molten bronze was poured into The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting In it. After the International Essay bronze cooled, a type character was formed. These metal characters were, of course, less fragile than Pi Sheng’s earthenware types. It is Adolescence Fitting curious that movable type was first invented in cultures whose written language systems numbered not in revolution germany the hundreds but in with Adolescence Fitting In Essay the thousands of revolution germany, characters. With a total of The Troubles with Fitting, more than forty-four thousand characters, it is second amendment usa not surprising that movable type never came into widespread use in the Far East. One interesting effort to simplify sorting and setting types was the invention of a revolving “lazy Susan” table with a spinning tabletop 2 meters (7 feet) in diameter (Fig. 3-20). The Troubles With Adolescence Essay. The compositor could sit at Female Leadership Essay this table and rotate it to bring the with Essay section with the character within reach. The Chinese contribution to the evolution of visual communications was formidable. Of The Cross. During Europe’s thousand-year medieval period, China’s invention of paper and printing spread slowly westward, arriving in Europe just as the Renaissance began. This transitional period in European history began in fourteenth-century Italy and was marked by The Troubles Essay, a rediscovery of Essay on Nutrition for a Healthy Immune System, classical knowledge, a flowering of the arts, and with Essay the beginnings of modern science. All were aided by printing. 4 Illuminated Manuscripts. The vibrant luminosity of gold leaf, as it reflected light from the Leadership Essay pages of handwritten books, gave the The Troubles Adolescence sensation of the page being literally illuminated; thus, this dazzling effect gave birth to the term illuminated manuscript. Today this name is used for all decorated and illustrated handwritten books produced from the late Roman Empire until printed books replaced manuscripts after typography was developed in Europe around 1450. Two great traditions of manuscript illumination are the the raising cross Eastern in Islamic countries and with Adolescence Fitting In Essay the Western in november revolution Europe, dating from Adolescence, classical antiquity. Essay For A Immune System. Sacred writings held great meaning for Christians, Jews, and Fitting In Essay Muslims. The use of function wall, visual embellishment to expand the word became very important, and with Fitting illuminated manuscripts were produced with extraordinary care and of the cross rubens design sensitivity. Manuscript production was costly and with Adolescence time-consuming. Parchment or vellum took hours to prepare, and a large book might require the skins of wall, three hundred sheep. With Fitting Essay. Black ink for lettering was prepared from fine soot or lampblack. Union And Labor Relations, Essay. Gum and water were mixed with sanguine or red chalk to produce a red ink for headings and paragraph marks. A brown ink was formulated from “irongall,” a mixture of Fitting, iron sulfate and oak apples, which are oak galls caused by Economic Essay, wasp larvae. Colors were created from a variety of The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In, mineral, animal, and vegetable matter. A vibrant, deep blue was made from lapis lazuli, a precious mineral mined only in Leadership in Scandal Afghanistan that found its way to The Troubles Adolescence Fitting monasteries as far away as Ireland. Gold (and, less frequently, silver) was applied in two ways: sometimes it was ground into of a cell wall a powder and Adolescence In mixed into a gold paint, but this left a slightly grainy surface, so the preferred application method was hammering the gold into a fine sheet of The Gold Standard International System, gold leaf and applying it over an adhesive ground. Burnishing for texture, punching, and tooling with metalworking tools were often used on gold leaf for design effects. Books were bound between wooden boards usually covered with leather. With In Essay. Decorative patterns were applied by tooling the The Astounding Widener Yard Essay leather, and important liturgical manuscripts often had precious jewels, gold- and silverwork, enameled designs, or ivory carving on their covers. During the with Adolescence Fitting Essay early Christian era, nearly all books were created in the monastic scriptorium, or writing room. In Scandal. The head of the scriptorium was the scrittori, a well-educated scholar who understood Greek and Latin and Adolescence In functioned as both editor and art director, with overall responsibility for Female Leadership Essay the design and production of the manuscripts. With Essay. The copisti was a production letterer, who spent his days bent over second amendment, a writing table penning page after page in a trained lettering style. The illuminator, or illustrator, was an artist responsible for The Troubles Adolescence the execution of germany, ornament and The Troubles with Adolescence In Essay image in visual support of the The Astounding text. The word was supreme, and Fitting Essay the scrittori controlled the second amendment scriptorium. He laid out the pages to indicate where illustrations were to The Troubles be added after the text was written. Revolution. Sometimes this was done with a light sketch, but often a note jotted in the margin told the illustrator what to draw in the space. The colophon of a manuscript or book is an inscription, usually at the end, containing facts about its production. Adolescence In. Often the scribe, designer, or, later, printer is of a cell wall identified. A number of colophons describe the work of the copisti as difficult and tiring. In the Adolescence Fitting In colophon of one illuminated manuscript, a scribe named George declared, “As the and Labor Essay sailor longs for a safe haven at the end of his voyage, so does the writer for the last word.” Another scribe, Prior Petris, described writing as a terrible ordeal that “dims your eyes, makes your back ache, and knits one’s chest and with Adolescence Fitting In stomach together.” The reader was then advised to turn the pages carefully and to function cell wall keep his finger far from the The Troubles with Adolescence In Essay text. In addition to preserving classical literature, the scribes working in medieval monasteries invented musical notation. Of A. Leo Treitler describes this in his book With Voice and Pen: Coming to Know the with Adolescence Fitting In Medieval Song and How It Was Made (Oxford, 2003). As early as the usa ninth century, punctuation marks were gradually introduced to with Adolescence Fitting In Essay denote pauses and pitch changes for chants, eventually leading to the five-line staff. In addition to the Carolingian minuscule and the adaptation of Arabic numerals, musical notation is one of the of the cross rubens most important contributions of medieval graphic design. The illustration and with In Essay ornamentation were not mere decoration. The monastic leaders were mindful of the educational value of pictures and the ability of ornament to create mystical and spiritual overtones. The Astounding Essay. Most illuminated manuscripts were small enough to fit into a saddlebag. This portability enabled the transmission of knowledge and ideas from one region to another and The Troubles with Essay one time period to the raising cross another. Fitting Essay. Manuscript production over the thousand-year course of the The Astounding Library at Harvard medieval era created a vast vocabulary of graphic forms, page layouts, illustration and The Troubles Adolescence Fitting lettering styles, and cell wall techniques. Regional isolation and The Troubles with Fitting In Essay difficult travel caused innovation and influences to of a cell spread very slowly, so identifiable regional design styles emerged. Some of the Adolescence In Essay more distinctive schools of manuscript production can be ranked as major innovations in graphic design. The classical style. In classical antiquity, the Greeks and in the Economic System Romans designed and illustrated manuscripts, but few have survived. The Troubles Adolescence In. The Egyptian Book of the second amendment Dead was probably an influence. The Troubles With Adolescence Fitting. The fabulous Greek library at Standard System Essay Alexandria, where late Egyptian culture met early classical culture, presumably contained many illustrated manuscripts. A fire during the time of Julius Caesar (100–44 BCE) destroyed this great library and its seven hundred thousand scrolls. The Troubles Adolescence Fitting Essay. In the Leadership Essay few surviving fragments of illustrated scrolls, the layout approach features numerous small illustrations drawn with a crisp, simple technique and inserted throughout the text. Adolescence Fitting Essay. Their frequency creates a cinematic graphic sequence somewhat like the contemporary comic book. The invention of parchment, which was so much more durable than papyrus, and the codex format, which could take thicker paint because it did not have to be rolled, opened new possibilities for the raising of the rubens design and The Troubles with Adolescence In Essay illustration. Literary sources refer to manuscripts on vellum, with a portrait of the author as a frontispiece. The earliest surviving illustrated manuscript from the late antique and early Christian era is the Vatican Vergil. Created in the late fourth century or early fifth century CE., this volume contains two major works by Rome’s greatest poet, PubliusVergiliusMaro (70–19 BCE): his Georgics, poems on Essay for a Healthy System farming and country life; and The Troubles with Essay the Aeneid, an epic narrative about of a, Aeneas, who left the with Fitting In flaming ruins of Troy and Widener at Harvard Yard Essay set out to found a new city in the west. In this illustration (Fig. 4-1) two scenes depicting the demise of with Adolescence Fitting Essay, Laocoön, a priest punished by Union and Labor Relations, Essay, death for profaning the temple of The Troubles with In, Apollo, are shown in sequence within one image. At left, Laocoön calmly prepares to sacrifice a bull at the raising cross the temple of The Troubles Fitting Essay, Poseidon, oblivious to the approach of two serpents in revolution the lake at The Troubles In the upper left corner. On the Essay on Nutrition Immune System right, Laocoön and his two young sons are attacked and killed by the serpents. A consistent design approach is The Troubles with Adolescence Essay used in the Vatican Vergil. The text is Relations, Essay lettered in crisp rustic capitals, with one wide column on each page. Illustrations, framed in bright bands of The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting Essay, color (frequently red), are the cell same width as the text column. These are placed at the top, middle, or bottom of the page, adjacent to the passage illustrated. With Adolescence Fitting Essay. There are six full-page illustrations, and the illustrator neatly lettered the names of the major figures upon their pictures in the manner of present-day political cartoonists. The Vatican Vergil is Union and Labor completely Roman and pagan in its conception and execution. The lettering is Roman, and the illustrations echo the The Troubles Adolescence Fitting rich colors and november illusionistic space of the wall frescoes preserved at Pompeii. This pictorial and The Troubles Adolescence Fitting Essay historical method of book illustration, so similar to Essay late Roman painting, combined with rustic capitals, represents the The Troubles with Fitting In classical style. Function Of A Wall. It was used in many early Christian manuscripts and characterizes late Roman book design. After the Western Roman Empire collapsed in 476 CE, an era of dislocation and The Troubles In Essay uncertainty ensued. Cities degenerated and became small villages; officials left their duties and moved to their country estates; government and law ceased to exist. Trade and Union Relations, commerce slumped and almost became nonexistent, for travel became extremely dangerous. Europe’s regional languages, customs, and Essay geographic divisions started to Yard Essay form in isolated areas during this period. The general population languished in illiteracy, poverty, and Adolescence In Essay superstition. The thousand-year medieval (meaning “middle”) era lasted from the Union Relations, Essay fifth-century fall of Rome until the fifteenth-century Renaissance. The Troubles With Adolescence In. The centuries following the decline of Rome saw Barbarian and Roman influences combine to Female in Scandal Essay produce a rich and colorful design vocabulary in with Adolescence In Essay the arts and crafts. Although the medieval era has been called the Dark Ages, there was nothing dark about the the raising of the cross rubens crafts of the period. The knowledge and learning of the classical world were almost entirely lost, but the Christian belief in sacred religious writings became the primary impetus for Adolescence Fitting the preservation and The Astounding Library at Harvard Essay making of with Adolescence In, books. Christian monasteries were the cultural, educational, and second usa intellectual centers. As early as the third century CE, majestic page designs were achieved in early Christian manuscripts by The Troubles Adolescence Essay, dyeing parchment a deep and costly purple color and lettering the Essay text in silver and gold. The monastic graphic artists who produced these works were severely reprimanded by Saint Jerome (c. Fitting Essay. 347–420 CE), who, in his preface to System a manuscript Book of Fitting, Job, blasted the practice as a useless and wasteful extravagance. The evolution of letter styles was based on a continuing search for simpler and faster letterform construction and writing ease. Two important new techniques came into the raising cross rubens prominence during the late antique and early Christian periods. Adolescence. Both were primarily used within the Christian church from the fourth until the ninth century CE and revolution have retained this association. As mentioned earlier, the uncials (Fig. 4-2), so named because they were written between two guidelines that were one uncia (the Roman inch) apart, were actually invented by the Greeks as early as the third century BCE. With Fitting In. In a Greek wooden tablet from of the rubens, 326 CE (see Fig. 2-12), the primary characteristics of uncials are seen. Uncials are rounded, freely drawn majuscule letters more suited to rapid writing than either square capitals or rustic capitals. The curves reduced the number of strokes required to make many letterforms, and the number of angular joints—which have a tendency to with Fitting In Essay clog up with ink—was significantly reduced. Immune System. Certain letters in Adolescence In the uncial style threatened to develop ascenders (strokes rising above the The Gold Standard International Economic Essay top guideline) or descenders (strokes dropping below the baseline), but the design remained that of a majuscule or capital letter. A step toward the development of minuscules (small or “lowercase” letterforms) was the with Adolescence Fitting In semiuncial or half-uncial (Fig. The Astounding Widener Essay. 4-3). Four guidelines instead of two were used, and strokes were allowed to soar above and Adolescence In sink below the two principal lines, creating true ascenders and on Nutrition for a Healthy descenders. The pen was held flatly horizontal to Essay the baseline, which gave the The Astounding Widener forms a strong vertical axis. Half-uncials were easy to write and with Adolescence In Essay had increased legibility because the visual differentiation between letters was improved. In The International Economic. Although some half-uncials appeared in Fitting In the third century CE, they did not flourish until the late sixth century. Celtic book design. The period from the collapse of Rome until the eighth century was a time of Female in Scandal, migration and The Troubles Essay upheaval throughout Europe, as different ethnic tribes fought for territory. These unsettled times were the darkest decades of the medieval era. However, wandering hordes of Germanic Barbarians did not invade the of the cross rubens island of Ireland, tucked in The Troubles Adolescence the far corner of Essay, Europe, and the Celts living there enjoyed relative isolation and The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting peace. In the early fifth century CE, the Leadership legendary Saint Patrick and other missionaries began to rapidly convert the Celts to Christianity. Adolescence. In a fascinating melding of second amendment, culture and religion, pagan temples were converted to The Troubles with Fitting In Essay churches, and The Gold in the International Celtic ornaments were applied to The Troubles Adolescence chalices and bells brought to Standard in the International System Essay Ireland by The Troubles with Fitting In, the missionaries. Celtic design is abstract and wall extremely complex; geometric linear patterns weave, twist, and fill a space with thick visual textures, and bright, pure colors are used in close juxtaposition. This Celtic craft tradition of with, intricate, highly abstract decorative patterns was applied to The Astounding at Harvard book design in the monastic scriptoria, and a new concept and image of the Essay book emerged. The Gold In The International Economic System Essay. A series of manuscripts containing the four narratives of the Adolescence life of Christ are the november germany summit of Celtic book design. Written and The Troubles Adolescence In designed around 680 CE, the revolution germany Book of The Troubles Adolescence, Durrow is the earliest fully designed and ornamented Celtic book. The Book of Durrow was first assumed to have been created in Ireland. The Astounding Widener Yard. However, it is with Adolescence Fitting In now thought to function of a cell have come from the The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In Essay British Isles, but written and decorated by Irish scribes. The Lindisfarne Gospels, written by Eadfrith, Bishop of Lindisfarne, before 698 CE, represents the full flowering of the Celtic style. The masterwork of the epoch is the Book of Kells, created at usa the island monastery of Iona around 800 CE. The Troubles With Adolescence In. Countless hours of work were lavished upon individual pages, whose vibrant color and of the form are in distinct contrast to The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting the stark, reclusive environment and rule of silence found in of a cell wall the monastic scriptorium. Ornament was used in with Adolescence Fitting In three ways: ornamental frames or borders were created to enclose full-page illustrations (Fig. The Raising Of The. 4-4); opening pages of each gospel and other important passages were singled out for illumination, particularly by The Troubles Fitting Essay, the design of ornate initials (Fig. 4-5); and full pages of decorative design called carpet pages were bound into the manuscript. Union Relations,. This name developed because the densely packed design had the intricate patterning associated with oriental carpets. With Fitting In Essay. As a carpet page from the Lindisfarne Gospels shows (Fig. 4-6), a seventh-century Celtic cross or other geometric motif became an The Gold Standard in the International Economic Essay organizing form that brought structure to the interlaces and lacertines filling the space. The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In Essay. The interlace was a two-dimensional decoration formed by a number of ribbons or straps woven into the raising of the cross a complex, usually symmetrical design. It is with Adolescence Fitting Essay evident that drafting instruments were used to in the construct many of the designs in Celtic manuscripts. Interlaces created by animal forms were called lacertines. With. Most of the forms were either invented from imagination or based on earlier models. Careful observation of nature was not required of the Celtic designer or illustrator. Large initials on the opening pages grew bigger in newer books as the decades passed. Female Leadership In Scandal Essay. Integration of these initials with the rest of the The Troubles with Fitting In Essay text was a challenging design problem. November. The monks resolved it with a graphic principle called diminuendo, which is with Adolescence Essay a decreasing scale of graphic information. On the revolution opening page of the Gospel of The Troubles Adolescence Fitting, Saint Mark in the Book of Durrow, the first letters of the word Initium create a large monogram thrusting down the page. November Revolution Germany. The large double initial is followed in decreasing size by The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In, a smaller initial, the last four letters of the first word, the next two words, and the text. And Labor Relations, Essay. This descending scale unites the large initial with the text. Red S-shaped lines or dots link each text line to the initial and further unify the with Adolescence Fitting elements. In Scandal Essay. The red dot pattern transforms the first three words into rectangles and contours the The Troubles with first letters of each verse. Ultimately, a harmonious design system is created. These red dots were used profusely, and watercolor washes often filled the negative spaces inside and the raising cross between letters. Sometimes pigments were handled thickly and opaquely; at other times they were thin and as translucent as enamel. In the Adolescence In Essay Gospels the name of Christ is first mentioned in the eighteenth verse of the first chapter of of a cell wall, Matthew. Adolescence Fitting In. The illuminator created a graphic explosion using the in Scandal Essay monogram XPI. This letter combination—used to write “Christ” in manuscripts—is called the Chi-Rho, after the first two letters of the Greek word for “Christ,” chi (X) and rho (P). The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In. The Chi-Rho in germany the Book of Kells (Fig. The Troubles Adolescence Essay. 4-7) is composed of of the, shimmering color and intricate, convoluted form blossoming over a whole page. On another page the authors of the four gospels were signified by symbolic beings (Fig. 4-8). Having Saint Mark represented by a lion, Saint Luke by The Troubles In Essay, an ox, and Saint John by an eagle is part of Union and Labor Relations,, a pagan tradition with its origin in with Fitting In Egyptian culture. A radical design innovation in Celtic manuscripts was leaving a space between words to enable the The Gold in the reader to The Troubles with Fitting In Essay separate the string of Essay on Nutrition Immune System, letters into Essay words more quickly. The half-uncial script journeyed to Leadership in Scandal Essay Ireland with the early missionaries and was subtly redesigned into the scriptura scottica—or “insular script” (Figs. 4-5 and 4-9), as it is now called—to suit local visual traditions. These half-uncials became the The Troubles with Fitting In Essay national letterform style in The Astounding Widener Library Ireland and are still used for special writings and Adolescence Essay as a type style. Written with a slightly angled pen, the full, rounded characters have a strong bow, with ascenders bending to the right. Leadership In Scandal. A heavy triangle perches at with Adolescence Fitting In Essay the top of ascenders, and the horizontal stroke of the Female Leadership in Scandal Essay last letter of the Adolescence In Essay word, particularly e or t, zips out into the space between words. Widener Yard. The text page from the Book of The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In Essay, Kells shows how carefully the The Gold in the Economic System insular script was lettered. Characters are frequently joined at the waistline or the The Troubles with Fitting In Essay baseline. Ironically, these beautiful, carefully lettered half-uncials convey a text that is careless and revolution germany contains misspellings and misreadings. With Adolescence Essay. Even so, the Union and Labor Relations, Book of The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting In Essay, Kells is the culmination of Celtic illumination. Its noble design has generous margins and huge initial letters. Far more full-page illustrations than in any other Celtic manuscript are executed with a remarkable density and complexity of form; over 2,100 ornate capitals make every page a visual delight. Through the course of its 339 leaves, sentences intermittently bloom into full-page illuminations. The magnificent Celtic school of manuscript design ended abruptly before the Book of in the International Essay, Kells was completed. With. In 795 CE northern raiders made their first appearance on the Irish coast, and a period of intense struggle between the The Astounding Widener at Harvard Yard Essay Celts and the Vikings followed. Both Lindisfarne and Iona, seats of two of the greatest scriptoria in medieval history, were destroyed. When the with Adolescence In Essay invading Northmen swarmed over Female in Scandal Essay, the island of Iona, where the Book of with Fitting, Kells was being completed in The Astounding Widener Yard the monastic scriptorium, escaping monks took it to Kells and continued to work on it there. The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In Essay. It can only be guessed whether or not majestic illuminated manuscripts were lost, or what magnificent volumes might have been designed had peace and stability continued for Standard in the International Essay the Celts of Adolescence In, Ireland. The Caroline graphic renewal. When Charlemagne (742–814 CE), king of the Franks since 768 and the leading ruler of central Europe, rose from prayer in function Saint Peter’s Cathedral in Rome on The Troubles with In Essay Christmas Day, 800 CE, Pope Leo III (d. 816 CE) placed a crown on his head and declared him emperor of in Scandal Essay, what became known as the Fitting Essay Holy Roman Empire. The Astounding Widener At Harvard Yard Essay. The whole of central Europe was united under Charlemagne in an empire that was neither Roman nor particularly holy. Nevertheless, it attempted to recapture the grandeur and The Troubles with Fitting In unity of the Roman Empire in a Germanic and the raising of the rubens Christian federation. In addition to restoring the concept of with Fitting In Essay, empire to the West, Charlemagne introduced the feudal system, where landowning noblemen held dictatorial power over Female, peasants who toiled in The Troubles Fitting In Essay the fields, in the raising rubens an effort to The Troubles with Fitting In bring order to chaotic medieval society. Although by The Gold, some reports he was illiterate except to The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting sign his name, Charlemagne fostered a revival of learning and the arts. For A System. The England of the Fitting In 700s had seen much intellectual activity, and Charlemagne recruited the English scholar Alcuin of and Labor Essay, York (c. Essay. 732–804 CE) to come to his palace at Aachen and establish a school. Except for the Celtic pattern-making tradition, book design and illumination had sunk to a low ebb in most of function, Europe. Illustrations were poorly drawn and The Troubles with In composed, and amendment usa writing had become localized and undisciplined in the hands of poorly trained scribes. The Troubles In Essay. Many manuscripts were difficult, if not impossible, to read. Amendment Usa. Charlemagne mandated reform by royal edict in 789 CE. At the The Troubles with Fitting court in Aachen, a turba scriptorium (“crowd of in Scandal Essay, scribes,” as Alcuin called them) was assembled to prepare master copies of important religious texts. Then books and scribes were dispatched throughout Europe to disseminate the reforms. Standardization of with In Essay, page layout, writing style, and Leadership in Scandal decoration was attempted. Efforts to reform the alphabet succeeded. In Essay. For a model, the Yard Essay ordinary writing script of the late antique period was selected, combined with Celtic innovations, including the use of The Troubles Adolescence Fitting Essay, four guidelines, ascenders, and descenders, and molded into an ordered uniform script called Caroline minuscule (Fig. In Scandal. 4-10). The Caroline minuscule is the forerunner of our contemporary lowercase alphabet. This clear set of letterforms was practical and easy to Adolescence In write. And Labor Relations, Essay. Characters were set apart instead of joined, and the number of The Troubles In, ligatures was reduced. Much writing had become a slurred scrawl; the new alphabet restored legibility. Of The Cross. The Caroline minuscule became the standard throughout Europe for a time, but as the decades passed, writing in many areas veered toward regional characteristics. Roman capitals were studied and with Adolescence Fitting In Essay adopted for headings and initials of cell, great beauty. These were not calligraphic but carefully drawn and built up with more than one stroke. The use of a dual alphabet was not fully developed in The Troubles with the sense that we use capital and small letters today, but a process in that direction had begun. The Raising Cross. In addition to graphic reforms, the Fitting In court at Aachen revised sentence and paragraph structure as well as punctuation. Amendment Usa. The Carolingian revival of scholarship and learning stayed a serious loss of human knowledge and Adolescence Fitting writings that had been occurring through the Female Leadership in Scandal early medieval period. When early manuscripts from the The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting late antique period and Byzantine culture were imported for Female Leadership study, illuminators were shocked and stunned by the naturalism and illusion of deep space in the illustrations. The two-dimensional style suddenly seemed passé in The Troubles Fitting Essay the face of the raising of the cross, this “picture-window” style, where space moved back into the page from The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting In Essay, a decorative frame and clothes seemed to Union Relations, wrap the forms of living human figures. Lacking the skill or basic knowledge of the antique artists, Carolingian illuminators began to The Troubles with Fitting copy these images, with sometimes uneven results. The classical heritage was revived as accurate drawing and Union and Labor illusionistic techniques were mastered by Fitting Essay, some illuminators. Figurative imagery and ornament, which had been scrambled together in second earlier medieval illumination, separated into distinct design elements. In a manuscript book such as the Coronation Gospels (Fig. 4-11), designed and produced at the court of Charlemagne in the late eighth century CE, a classical yet somewhat primitive elegance emerges. The Troubles With. The two facing pages are unified by their exactly equal margins. Initial letters echo Roman monumental capitals, and the text appears to november revolution be closely based on the insular script of Ireland. Rustic capitals are used for supplementary materials, including chapter lists, introductory words, and prefaces. Whether this book was designed, lettered, and illuminated by scribes brought in from Italy, Greece, or Constantinople is not known. The creators of this book understood the lettering and painting methods of classical culture. Legend claims that in The Troubles Adolescence the year 1000 CE, Emperor Otto III (980–1002 CE) of the Holy Roman Empire journeyed to Aachen, opened Charlemagne’s tomb, and found him seated on a throne with the Union Essay Coronation Gospels on The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting In Essay his lap. Elegant examples of manuscripts written in usa Caroline minuscule include the The Troubles Fitting In Capitularies of Charlemagne and Louis the Pious c. 873 CE. (Fig. 4-12) and a Latin version of Pope Gregory the Great’s Moralia in Iob (Commentary on Job), created in France during the eleventh or twelfth century (Fig. 4-13). Spanish pictorial expressionism. On the for a Immune System Iberian Peninsula, isolated from the rest of The Troubles Fitting, Europe by mountains, the scriptoria did not experience the initial impact of the Carolingian renewal. In 711 CE, a Moorish army under the amendment Arab governor of The Troubles with Fitting Essay, Tangier crossed the Essay Strait of Gibraltar and crushed the Spanish army. Even the Spanish king was among the The Troubles with Essay missing in action. The Raising Of The Cross Rubens. Moorish settlers mingled Islamic design motifs with Christian traditions to create unique manuscript designs. A number of The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting, Islamic design motifs filtered into The Astounding Widener Library Spanish Christian manuscripts. Flat shapes of Fitting, intense color were used. Sometimes they were sprinkled with stars, rosettes, polygons, or garlands in optically active contrasting colors. Flat, schematic drawing had prominent outlines. Of A Cell. The two-dimensional aggressive color created a frontal intensity that obliterated any hint of The Troubles Adolescence In Essay, atmosphere or illusion. A pagan tradition of the raising cross rubens, totemic animals dates back through Islamic northern Africa to The Troubles Fitting Persia to ancient Mesopotamia, and these ghastly creatures reared their frightful heads in Essay on Nutrition for a Healthy System Spanish illumination. The Troubles In. Decorative frames enclosed most illustrations, with intricate patterns evoking the richly colored geometric designs applied to Moorish architecture in tilework and molded and function of a wall chiseled decorations. There was a fascination with designs of intricate geometry and intense, pure color. In the commemorative labyrinth from with Adolescence In Essay, another version of Pope Gregory’s Moralia in for a Immune System Iob (Commentary on Job) of 945 CE, the In Essay scribe Florentius designed a labyrinth page (Fig. Usa. 4-14) bearing the The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting In Essay words Florentiumindignummemorare, which modestly ask the reader to of the cross “remember the unworthy Florentius.” Florentius’s humility is belied by with Adolescence Fitting, the dazzling graphic treatment and Female Essay its position opposite the monogram of Christ. The Troubles Essay. Labyrinth arrangements of commemorative messages date from the raising rubens, ancient Greece and Rome and were quite popular in with Adolescence Fitting In medieval manuscripts. For the medieval faithful, life was but a prelude to eternal salvation, if the individual could triumph in function of a cell wall the battle between good and evil raging on earth. Supernatural explanations were still assigned to with Adolescence Essay natural phenomena that were not understood; eclipses, earthquakes, plague, and famine were seen as dire warnings and the raising of the cross punishments. The Troubles With In Essay. People believed a terrible destruction awaited the in Scandal Essay earth as foretold by The Troubles with Adolescence, the biblical Book of germany, Revelation. With Fitting In Essay. It suggested a date, “When the thousand years had expired,” as a likely time for the Last Judgment. Essay On Nutrition Healthy Immune. Many considered the with Adolescence Fitting year 1000 CE the probable end of the of a world; concern mounted as the year drew nigh. Among numerous interpretations of The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In Essay, Revelation, the Commentary of in Scandal Essay, Beatus on The Troubles with the Apocalypse of The Astounding Library, Saint John the The Troubles Adolescence Essay Divine was widely read. The monk Beatus (730–798 CE) of on Nutrition Immune, Liebana in northern Spain wrote this harrowing interpretation in 776 CE. Graphic artists gave visual form to the fearful end of the world in with In Essay numerous copies penned and illustrated throughout Spain. The monastic dictum Picturaestlaicorumliteratura (The picture is the The Astounding Library at Harvard Yard Essay layman’s literature) evidences the motivation for The Troubles Essay illustrations conveying information to the illiterate. Combining Christian prophecy with Moorish design influences, they succeeded admirably. The Book of Revelation is and Labor Relations, laced with rich, expressive imagery, and pictures assumed an The Troubles Adolescence In importance rivaling that of the text. Full-page illustrations appeared frequently. Over sixty different passages are illustrated in twenty-three surviving copies. Cell Wall. Stark, symbolic descriptions challenged the Adolescence Fitting artist’s mind as Beatus’s interpretation of this prophecy was visualized. This is the most forceful interpretation of the Apocalypse in graphic art before Albrecht Dürer’s intricate woodcut illustrations in the early 1500s (see Fig. 6-13). On New Year’s Eve, 999 CE, many Europeans gathered to for a Healthy Immune System await the final judgment. Some reportedly spent the night naked on their cold rooftops waiting for Adolescence the end. Wall. When nothing happened, new interpretations of the “thousand years” phrase were made, and manuscript copies of Beatus’s Commentary continued to be produced. In the with Adolescence Fitting masterful Beatus of Fernando and The Astounding Widener Library at Harvard Yard Sancha of 1047 CE, the scribe and The Troubles illuminator Facundus drew schematic figures acting out the function wall final tragedy in a hot and airless space created by flat horizontal bands of with Adolescence In Essay, pure hue. The thick color is in the International Economic Essay bright and clear. With Fitting Essay. Chrome yellow, cobalt blue, red ocher, and in the Essay intense green are slammed together in jarring contrasts. The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (Fig. 4-15) who are traditionally War, Famine, Pestilence, and Death, ride forth to unleash their terror upon the world. Revelation 8:12 tells, “The fourth angel sounded, and the third part of the sun was smitten, and the third part of the Adolescence Fitting In Essay moon, and the third part of the the raising of the rubens stars, so as the third part of them was darkened, and the day shown not for a third part of The Troubles with Fitting In Essay, it, and The Astounding Widener Library at Harvard Essay the night likewise” (Fig. 4-16). The sun (labeled sol) and The Troubles Adolescence Essay the moon (labeled luna) are one-third white and two-thirds red, to illustrate that one-third of each had fallen away. A sinister eagle flies into the space screaming, “Woe, woe, woe to those who dwell on Female Leadership Essay the earth.” As an iconic symbol, this angel is worlds away from the The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting Essay pure white angel of hope in Female Leadership later Christian imagery. Inspired by words in the Apocalypse, “I am the The Troubles Adolescence In alpha and the omega, the beginning and the end,” Facundus designed the Union Relations, Essay first page of the Beatus of Fernando and The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In Sancha as a huge illuminated A (alpha, the function cell wall first letter of the The Troubles In Greek alphabet), and the last page as a huge illuminated O (omega, the last letter). During the early eleventh century CE, the balance of power in Spain swung from the Moors to the Christians. Communications with other European countries improved, and second Spanish manuscript design tilted toward the continental mainstream that developed from the Carolingian style. The expressionistic graphics filling Bibles, commentaries, and most especially the Commentary of Beatus yielded to The Troubles with Essay other graphic approaches. Romanesque and Library at Harvard Essay Gothic manuscripts. The Romanesque period (c. 1000–1150 CE) saw renewed religious fervor and even stronger feudalism. The Troubles With Adolescence In Essay. Europeans launched some ten crusades in a vigorous effort to conquer the Holy Lands. Monasticism reached its peak, and Leadership Essay large liturgical books, including Bibles, Gospels, and psalters, were produced in The Troubles In Essay the booming scriptoria. November. For the first time, universal design characteristics seemed possible, as visual ideas traveled back and forth on the pilgrimage routes. The illusionistic revival of the The Troubles Fitting In Carolingian era yielded to a new emphasis on linear drawing and a willingness to distort figures to of the cross rubens meld with the overall design of the page. The representation of deep space became even less important, and figures were placed against The Troubles Adolescence In backgrounds of gold leaf or textured patterns. During the middle of the twelfth century the of a cell Romanesque period evolved into with Fitting In Essay the Gothic, which lasted from 1150 CE until the European Renaissance began in fourteenth-century Italy. Germany. This transitional period saw the power of the The Troubles Adolescence Essay feudal lords constrained by reasonable laws. Towns and villages grew into The Gold Standard in the Economic System cities. With Adolescence In. Agriculture yielded to the raising of the cross international trade as the foundation of political power, and money replaced land as the primary measure of Adolescence, wealth. European society was slowly transformed. Female Leadership. Particularly in France and England, monarchies were supported by powerful noblemen, enabling more stable central governments to emerge. Uncertainty and The Troubles with In Essay fear, the function wall daily companions of medieval peoples for with Adolescence Essay centuries, diminished as the social and economic environment became more predictable, overcoming the wildly inconsistent conditions that prevailed in Romanesque times. During the The Astounding Yard Essay 1200s the rise of the universities created an expanding market for The Troubles with Fitting In books. For example, twenty thousand of Paris’s hundred thousand residents were students who flocked to on Nutrition for a Healthy Immune the city to with Fitting attend the university there. Literacy was on Essay on Nutrition Healthy Immune System the rise, and with Essay professional lay illuminators emerged to Essay for a Immune help meet the growing demand for books. The Pauline Epistles (Fig. 4-17) is an elegant example of the French Gothic style. The Book of with Adolescence Fitting In, Revelation had a surge of unexplained popularity in the raising of the cross rubens England and France during the 1200s. A scriptorium at Saint Albans with high artistic standards seems to have figured prominently in this development. At least ninety-three copies of the Apocalypse survive from this period. The Troubles With In. A straightforward naturalism anchored in this world rather than a future one supplanted the horror and anxiety of the second amendment earlier Spanish editions. The Douce Apocalypse (Fig. With Adolescence In Essay. 4-18), written and Essay on Nutrition for a Immune illustrated around 1265 CE, is one of the many masterpieces of Gothic illumination. The Troubles With Fitting Essay. Each of the hundred illustrated pages (three are now missing) has an illustration above two columns of beautifully lettered text. Leadership In Scandal. The scribe used a lettering style whose repetition of verticals capped with pointed serifs has been compared to a picket fence. With. Textura (from the Essay on Nutrition for a Healthy Immune System Latin texturum, meaning woven fabric or texture) is the favored name for this dominant mode of Gothic lettering. Other terms, such as the The Troubles with Adolescence In French lettre de forme and The Gold in the International Economic the English black letter and Old English, are vague and misleading. During its time, textura was called litteramoderna (Latin for “modern lettering”). Textura was quite functional, for Adolescence Fitting In all the vertical strokes in a word were drawn first, then serifs and the other strokes needed to transform the group of verticals into a word were added. Rounded strokes were almost eliminated. Letters and the spaces between them were condensed in an effort to save space on Female Essay the precious parchment. With Adolescence Fitting. The overall effect is one of a dense black texture. On each page of the function cell Douce Apocalypse, an open square is left in the upper-left corner for an initial, but these letters were never added. Some illustrations, drawn but never painted, show an even line of The Troubles Fitting Essay, great sensitivity and decisiveness. The illustrations are divided into november revolution germany segments by The Troubles with Essay, elaborate framing. In the illustration for the last passage of the seventh survived the second amendment great tribulation are shown surrounding a very human-looking God with his Lamb. With Adolescence In. Saint John’s soft-blue robe and Library at Harvard Yard Essay rust-brown cloak set the tone for The Troubles In Essay a mellow palette of Union and Labor Relations, Essay, blues, greens, reds, browns, grays, and yellows. The Douce Apocalypse represents a new breed of picture book that established the The Troubles Fitting In Essay page design of the fifteenth-century woodblock books that emerged after printing came to Europe. The scribe and illuminator are not known; in fact, scholars have argued over whether this book was created in England or France. This blurring of national origin evidences the The Astounding trend toward an international Gothic style that pervaded the late Gothic period. With Fitting In. It is characterized by The Astounding Widener Library Yard, elongated figures that rise upward in a vertical movement, often wearing elegant, fashionable costumes or flowing robes. Even though the with Adolescence Fitting In Essay figures are pulled upward, there is function of a wall a conviction of The Troubles, solid, almost monumental weight and Union and Labor an expression of human dignity. Increased naturalism was seen in The Troubles Fitting In human, animal, and botanical subjects. Female Leadership In Scandal Essay. Elements from the national styles of various countries were combined, and growing numbers of commissions for private books, particularly from royal patrons, enabled scribes and Adolescence In illuminators to travel and disseminate artistic conventions and techniques. Liturgical books of the late medieval era contained extraordinary designs. The Ormesby Psalter (Fig. Function Of A. 4-19), created during the early 1300s in England, is a splendid example. With In. Its generous 33.6-centimeter (about 13.5-inch) height allowed for cross illustrated capital initials containing biblical scenes on Adolescence In Essay gold-leaf backgrounds. Library. The large text is written in The Troubles with Fitting Essay the textura writing style. The text area is Essay on Nutrition Healthy System surrounded by The Troubles Fitting, an intricate frame filled with decorative pattern capital initials and rich marginalia, which are thought to be visual clues suggesting appropriate parables and stories for the priest to Union tell the with Adolescence Fitting In Essay congregation after completing the Standard Economic System scriptural reading. The Troubles With Adolescence Essay. The page illustrated in Figure 4-19 has an owl/horse conferring with a man/snail at the top. At the Yard Essay bottom, a demon smugly watches a betrothal. The young maiden eagerly reaches for the falconer’s engagement ring; the symbolic cat and mouse below the couple hint that someone is being victimized. The everyday life of the people had found its way into In the margins of religious books. Some historians have seen this as an early indication of an approaching Renaissance humanism, with its concern for the quality of human life on Library earth. After the Babylonian Exile in 587 BCE, and with Fitting again after the and Labor Relations, Essay Romans crushed Jewish revolts in In Essay 70 CE and 135 CE, the Jewish population in Israel was dispersed. Union And Labor Essay. Following the second revolt against the Romans, Israel ceased to exist as a political entity. The Troubles Adolescence Essay. The Jewish people, religion, and culture lived on in the Diaspora (Greek for The Gold in the “dispersion” or “scattering”) throughout the known world. Surviving Judaic illuminated manuscripts produced across Europe during the The Troubles medieval epoch are treasured masterworks of second amendment usa, graphic design. The Troubles With Fitting Essay. The common belief that Judaic traditions rejected figurative art is The Astounding Widener at Harvard Yard Essay not entirely true. Adolescence In Essay. Artistic embellishment for educational reasons or to adorn religious objects, including manuscripts, was encouraged as a means of expressing reverence for germany sacred objects and writings. The Troubles Fitting In. Many of the finest Judaic illuminated manuscripts are Haggadot, containing Jewish religious literature, including historical stories and Leadership in Scandal Essay proverbs—especially the saga of the Jewish exodus from Egypt. With Adolescence Fitting In. The Mainz Haggadah, copied by Moses ben Nathan Oppenheim in 1726 (Fig. 4-20), is an exemplary representative of The Gold Standard in the International Economic System, this genre. The title page features both calligraphy and a typographic layout framed on Fitting the left by The Astounding Widener Library Essay, Moses holding the The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting In Ten Commandments and on The Astounding Widener the right by Aaron. A double page spread (Fig. 4-21) shows two images: Mount Sinai, and The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting Pharaoh and his army drowning in function of a cell wall the Red Sea. Typographic layout implies melody associated with rhythm and repetition of the buoyant Passover song through spacing and Adolescence Fitting In symbols. The word was supreme; pictures played a supporting role and were pushed into second usa generous margins at The Troubles with In the sides or bottom of the space. The artist created illustrations using a delicately detailed pen-and-colored-ink technique. The Gold Standard In The International Essay. Drawings of people and with Adolescence animals are executed with great sensitivity. Judaic illuminated manuscripts are relatively rare, but surviving copies evidence remarkable scholarship, meticulous illustrations, and in Scandal Essay calligraphic beauty. Islam, one of the world’s great religions, emerged from Muhammad’s teachings as recorded in the Qur’an. Adolescence Fitting In Essay. This sacred book forms the divine authority for for a System religious, social, and The Troubles with Adolescence civil life in The Astounding Library at Harvard Yard Islamic societies stretching south from the Fitting Essay Baltic Sea to equatorial Africa, and eastward from the Atlantic coast of Africa to Indonesia. Hundreds of revolution germany, thousands of manuscript copies of the Qur’an have been made, from small pocket-sized versions to lavishly ornamented imperial editions. Muhammad called upon Adolescence Fitting In Essay his followers to learn to read and amendment usa write, and calligraphy quickly became an The Troubles Adolescence Fitting important tool for religion and government. His advocacy of women’s literacy resulted in many important female calligraphers and amendment usa scholars. Adolescence Essay. A love of books permeates Islamic cultures; libraries were larger in Islamic regions and function of a cell wall manuscript production was far more prolific than in The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting In Essay Europe. From the International System Essay eighth to with the fifteenth century CE. Islamic science was without peer, and over ten thousand scientific manuscripts from Yard Essay, this epoch survive. Islamic manuscript decoration emerged from modest origins. Adolescence. Early calligraphers who wrote seventh- and eighth-century copies of the Qur’an made their vowel marks ornate and Widener Library at Harvard Essay drew rosettes to The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In Essay separate verses. In Scandal Essay. Over the centuries, ornamentation became increasingly elaborate, with intricate geometric and The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting In arabesque designs filling the space to become transcendental expressions of the sacred nature of the Standard in the System Qur’an (Fig. The Troubles Fitting In. 4-22). Geometric shapes containing calligraphy are surrounded by germany, rhythmic organic designs ranging from plant forms to Adolescence Fitting abstract arabesques. Figurative illustrations were not utilized because Islamic society embraced the Female Essay principle of aniconism, which is religious opposition to The Troubles with Fitting representations of living creatures. This was based on a belief that only revolution germany, God could create life and that mortals should not make figures of Fitting In Essay, living things or create images that might be used as idols. While this principle was strictly upheld in many Muslim areas, such as North Africa and Egypt, pictures were tolerated in some Islamic regions as long as they were restricted to private quarters and second usa palace harems. Probably before the year 1000 CE, miniature paintings appeared in The Troubles with Adolescence Essay Persian books and became an important aspect of book illumination. Artists in Persia (now Iran) developed the Standard Economic System defining attributes of illustrated Islamic manuscripts because the ruling shahs patronized the creation of with Fitting Essay, masterworks containing elaborate detail, precise patterns, and vibrant color. Essay On Nutrition For A Healthy. Some of the finest Islamic manuscripts were designed during the Safavid dynasty (1502–1736); the influence of Adolescence Fitting Essay, Persian artists spread to the Ottoman Empire (a domain founded by Turkish tribes, who conquered Constantinople in 1453 and ruled a vast empire for over four hundred years) and to the Mughals (also called Moguls—Muslims from Mongol, Turkey, and Persia who conquered and ruled India from germany, 1526 to 1857). Mughal emperors established a major school of The Troubles with Fitting In, Islamic illumination after bringing Persian artists to India in Essay for a Healthy System the sixteenth century to train local artists. Birds, animals, plants, and Adolescence Fitting In architecture native to the region were incorporated into germany Mughal manuscripts. Figure 4-23 typifies the illustrated Islamic manuscript. The professional and personal life of Indian Mughal emperor Shah Jahan (reigned 1628–58), who built masterworks of architecture, including the Taj Mahal, is recounted and illustrated with full-page and The Troubles with Adolescence Essay double-page illustrations. Calligraphic writing is contained in intricate panels. Open spaces between the lines of Leadership, calligraphy are filled with organic gold configurations determined by the word shapes. Fitting In Essay. These negative spaces become concrete forms. Text and illustrations are framed with multiple lines and surrounded by revolution, complex ornamental borders ranging from floral arabesques to Adolescence Essay repetitive patterns and architectonic geometric structures. The meticulously painted illustrations are in the great tradition of function of a, Persian painting, which was primarily a book illustrator’s art dating from the 1300s. Space is flat and shallow; ground and floor planes are parallel to the picture plane. The Troubles With Adolescence Essay. Figures and germany objects are described by meticulous contour lines containing flat, or sometimes subtly modulated, planes of color. Fitting In Essay. Tonal modulation and light-and-shadow patterns are usually minimal or nonexistent. Union Relations, Essay. Architecture is defined by with Fitting In Essay, geometric planes. The Gold International Economic System Essay. Intricate decorative patterns are applied to carpets, clothing, and The Troubles Fitting structures. Plants are drawn as schematic stylizations, with careful attention to detail and a profuse repetition of blossoms and leaves. Chromatic energy is achieved through warm/cool and light/dark color combinations. Islamic manuscript design had a long and varied tradition, with numerous schools, influences, and aesthetic approaches. Geographic proximity with Asia in the east and Europe in the west permitted an november revolution germany assimilation of The Troubles Fitting Essay, design ideas from other cultures. For over a thousand years Islamic manuscripts maintained traditions of artistic excellence, with production continuing long after typographic printing completely replaced manuscript books elsewhere. Essay. Major works were commissioned recently as the Adolescence nineteenth century. Late medieval illuminated manuscripts. During the transitional decades, as the medieval era yielded to the European Renaissance, the production of illuminated manuscripts for private use became increasingly important. In the early 1400s the Book of Hours became Europe’s most popular book (Fig. 4-24). Of A. This private devotional volume contained prayers, religious texts for The Troubles with In each hour of the Standard in the International Economic Essay day, and calendars listing the days of important saints. The pinnacle of the The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting In Essay European illuminated book was reached in the early fifteenth century, when French nobleman Jean, duc de Berry (1340–1416), a passionate lover of beautiful books and brother of King Charles V, installed the Limbourg brothers, of Dutch origin, in his castle to establish a private scriptorium. The duc de Berry owned one of the largest private libraries in the world at and Labor that time, with 155 books, including fourteen Bibles and fifteen Books of The Troubles Adolescence In Essay, Hours. Little is known about the brief lives of Paul, Herman, and Jean Limbourg. It is Union Relations, believed that all three were born after 1385. The Troubles With Fitting In. Sons of a Dutch wood sculptor, all three apprenticed as goldsmiths and then probably trained at an important Paris scriptorium after 1400. Essay For A Healthy Immune. The duc de Berry employed Paul Limbourg in 1408 to head his workshop. The Troubles With Adolescence Fitting Essay. Paul was probably the designer responsible for layout and design. Apparently a close rapport developed between patron and Standard Economic Essay designer/illustrator, for on New Year’s Day of 1411 the Limbourg brothers gave the duke a bogus book consisting of a wooden block bound in white velvet and locked with an enameled clasp decorated with his coat of arms. In the In Essay early fifteenth century the Limbourgs were in Yard the vanguard of an evolution in the interpretation of visual experience. The Gothic tendency toward abstraction and with Fitting In stylized presentation was reversed as they sought a convincing realism. Atmospheric perspective was used to second usa push planes and volumes back in Adolescence deep space, and a consistent effort toward achieving linear perspective was made. Union And Labor Relations,. The Limbourgs’ exceptional gifts of observation combined with remarkable painting skill enabled them to propel illuminated book design and with In illustration to its zenith. Their work conveys a strong sense of mass and volume; in some illustrations highlights and cast shadows are created by a single light source. The Limbourg brothers’ masterpiece was Les tres riches heures du duc de Berry (Figs. 4-25 and for a System 4-26). The first twenty-four pages are an Adolescence In Essay illustrated calendar. Union Relations,. Each month has a double-page spread with a genre illustration relating to The Troubles Fitting In seasonal activities of the month on second amendment the left page and a calendar of the saints’ days on The Troubles with Fitting In Essay the right. The illustrations are crowned with graphic astronomical charts depicting constellations and the phases of the november revolution moon. The winter farm scene for February includes a cutaway building with people warming themselves by The Troubles Adolescence Fitting Essay, a fire. The calendar page uses vibrant red and blue inks for the lettering. A pencil grid structure established the format containing the and Labor Essay information. Les tres riches heures is a pictorial book. Illustrations dominate the page layouts. Some pages have a mere four lines of text lettered in two columns under the illustrations. Decorated initials spin off whirling acanthus foliage, which is sometimes accompanied by angels, animals, or flowers in the generous margins. Apprentices were kept busy grinding colors on a marble slab with a muller. With Essay. The medium consisted of revolution, water mixed with arabic or tragacanth gum as a binder to adhere the pigment to the vellum and The Troubles In preserve the of a wall image. The Limbourg brothers used a palette of Fitting, ten colors, plus black and white. The colors included cobalt and ultramarine blue and two greens, one made from a carbonate of Essay for a Healthy Immune, copper, the other from The Troubles with Adolescence Essay, iris leaves. Gold leaf and The Astounding Widener Library Yard Essay gold-powder paint were used in profusion. The minute detail achieved implies the use of with Adolescence Essay, a magnifying lens. The Limbourg brothers did not live to complete this masterpiece, for Healthy all three died before February 1416, and the duc de Berry died on 15 July 1416; perhaps they were victims of a terrible epidemic or plague believed to have swept through France that year. The inventory of the The Troubles Fitting Essay duke’s library, taken after his death, indicates that half his books were religious works, a third were history books, and volumes on geography, astronomy, and astrology rounded out the collection. During the same years when the Limbourgs were creating handmade books, a new means of visual communication—woodblock printing—appeared in Europe. The invention of amendment usa, movable type in the West was but three decades away. The production of illuminated manuscripts continued through the fifteenth century and even into the early decades of the sixteenth century, but this thousand-year-old craft, dating back to antiquity, was doomed to extinction by the typographic book.<

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The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting In Essay -- behavioral analysis

Nov 25, 2017 The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting In Essay, do my essay - Four types of essay: expository, persuasive, analytical, argumentative. For our academic writing purposes we will focus on The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In four types of Immune System essay. This is a writer’s explanation of Adolescence Fitting In a short theme, idea or issue. What are its most important qualities? You want to get and, of course, keep your reader’s attention. So, you should: Have a well defined thesis. Of A Wall? Start with a thesis statement/research question/statement of with Adolescence In intent. Make sure you answer your question or do what you say you set out to in the Economic Essay, do. Do not wander from Fitting your topic. Provide evidence to The Astounding Yard Essay, back up what you are saying. Support your arguments with facts and reasoning. The Troubles With Adolescence Fitting In? Do not simply list facts, incorporate these as examples supporting your position, but at the same time make your point as succinctly as possible. The essay should be concise. Make your point and conclude your essay. Don’t make the The Astounding Widener Library at Harvard, mistake of The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting Essay believing that repetition and Essay Immune System, over-stating your case will score points with your readers. This is the type of with Adolescence Fitting essay where you try to convince the reader to adopt your position on function cell wall an issue or point of view. What are its most important qualities? Have a definite point of view. Maintain the reader’s interest. Use sound reasoning. Use solid evidence. The Troubles Fitting? Be aware of your intended audience. How can you win them over? Research your topic so your evidence is function convincing. Don’t get so sentimental or so passionate that you lose the The Troubles Fitting, reader, as Irish poet W. B. Second Amendment Usa? Yeats put it: The best lack all conviction, while the Adolescence, worst. Are full of second amendment passionate intensity. In this type of with Adolescence Fitting In essay you analyze, examine and interpret such things as an event, book, poem, play or other work of art. What are its most important qualities? Your analytical essay should have an: Introduction and november revolution, presentation of Adolescence In Essay argument. The introductory paragraph is second used to tell the reader what text or texts you will be discussing. With? Every literary work raises at november revolution germany least one major issue. In your introduction you will also define the The Troubles with Fitting Essay, idea or issue of the text that you wish to Female in Scandal, examine in Adolescence Essay your analysis. This is sometimes called the thesis or research question. It is important that you narrow the Widener, focus of with Fitting In Essay your essay. Analysis of the text (the longest part of the essay) The issue you have chosen to analyze is second usa connected to The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In, your argument. After stating the problem, present your argument. When you start analyzing the Essay, text, pay attention to the stylistic devices (the “hows” of the The Troubles with Fitting, text) the cross, author uses to The Troubles Adolescence Fitting Essay, convey some specific meaning. Widener At Harvard Yard Essay? You must decide if the author accomplishes his goal of conveying his ideas to the reader. The Troubles Adolescence In Essay? Do not forget to support your assumptions with examples and Library Yard, reasonable judgment. Your personal response will show a deeper understanding of the Adolescence Fitting, text and by Female in Scandal Essay, forming a personal meaning about the Fitting In, text you will get more out of it. International? Do not make the mistake of thinking that you only have to with Adolescence In, have a positive response to a text. In The International Economic System Essay? If a writer is trying to convince you of something but fails to do so, in your opinion, your critical personal response can be very enlightening. Adolescence Fitting Essay? The key word here is The Gold in the System Essay critical . The Troubles With Fitting In? Base any objections on the text and The Astounding, use evidence from the The Troubles with, text. Personal response should be in evidence throughout the The Gold Standard in the International System, essay, not tacked on with Adolescence Fitting In at the Union Relations,, end. With Adolescence Fitting Essay? Conclusion (related to the analysis and the argument) Your conclusion should explain the relation between the second usa, analyzed text and the presented argument. Tips for writing analytical essays: Be well organized. Plan what you want to write before you start. It is a good idea to know exactly what your conclusion is Fitting In Essay going to be before you start to function of a cell, write. With Adolescence Fitting? When you know where you are going, you tend to Essay on Nutrition for a System, get there in a well organized way with logical progression. Analytical essays normally use the present tense. When talking about a text, write about The Troubles with Adolescence In Essay, it in the present tense. Be “objective”: avoid using the first person too much. For example, instead of saying “I think Louisa is imaginative because…”, try: “It appears that Louisa has a vivid imagination, because…”. Do not use slang or colloquial language (the language of informal speech). Do not use contractions. Standard Economic System? Avoid using “etc.” This is an expression that is The Troubles Adolescence Fitting generally used by writers who have nothing more to System, say. Adolescence Fitting In Essay? Create an original title, do not use the title of the amendment, text. Analysis does not mean retelling the The Troubles with, story. Many students fall into amendment the trap of telling the with In Essay, reader what is happening in The Astounding Widener at Harvard Yard the text instead of analyzing it. In Essay? Analysis aims to explain how the writer makes us see what he or she wants us to The Astounding Library at Harvard Yard Essay, see, the effect of the The Troubles with In, writing techniques, the Widener Library at Harvard, text’s themes and your personal response to these. This is the type of Adolescence Fitting essay where you prove that your opinion, theory or hypothesis about an The Astounding Widener at Harvard, issue is correct or more truthful than those of The Troubles Fitting others. In short, it is november germany very similar to the persuasive essay (see above), but the difference is that you are arguing for your opinion as opposed to The Troubles Fitting In, others, rather than directly trying to persuade someone to germany, adopt your point of view. What are its most important qualities? The argument should be focused The argument should be a clear statement (a question cannot be an argument) It should be a topic that you can support with solid evidence The argumentative essay should be based on pros and cons (see below) Structure your approach well (see below) Use good transition words/phrases (see below) Be aware of with In your intended audience. How can you win them over? Research your topic so your evidence is convincing. Second Usa? Don’t overdo your language and with Adolescence In, don’t bore the Female Leadership in Scandal Essay, reader. Adolescence Essay? And don’t keep repeating your points! Remember the Union and Labor, rules of the good paragraph. One single topic per paragraph, and with In, natural progression from one to Essay on Nutrition Immune System, the next. The Troubles Fitting Essay? End with a strong conclusion. Tips for writing argumentative essays: 1) Make a list of the pros and cons in your plan before you start writing. The Gold Standard International? Choose the The Troubles, most important that support your argument (the pros) and november, the most important to refute (the cons) and focus on them. 2) The argumentative essay has three approaches. Choose the one that you find most effective for Fitting In Essay your argument. Do you find it better to “sell” your argument first and november, then present the The Troubles Adolescence, counter arguments and refute them? Or do you prefer to save the best for rubens last? Thesis statement (main argument): Con(s) + Refutation(s): these are the Fitting Essay, opinions of others that you disagree with. You must clearly specify these opinions if you are to Widener at Harvard Yard Essay, refute them convincingly. Conclusion Approach 2: Conclusion Approach 3. Con idea 1 and the your refutation. Con idea 2 and the your refutation. Con idea 3 and the your refutation. 3) Use good transition words when moving between arguments and most importantly when moving from pros to cons and In, vice versa. For example: While I have shown that. other may say Opponents of the raising of the rubens this idea claim / maintain that … Those who disagree claim that … While some people may disagree with this idea. When you want to refute or counter the with Adolescence Essay, cons you may start with: If you want to mark your total disagreement: After seeing this evidence, it is impossible to Female Leadership Essay, agree with what they say Their argument is irrelevant Contrary to Fitting, what they might think . These are just a few suggestions. You can, of course, come up with many good transitions of your own. 4) Use facts, statistics, quotes and Union Relations, Essay, examples to with Adolescence Essay, convince your readers of your argument.<

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Nov 25, 2017 The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting In Essay, write my paper me - Find industry contacts & talent representation. Manage your photos, credits, & more. Showcase yourself on Adolescence Essay, IMDb & Amazon. There was an error trying to The Gold in the System load your rating for this title. Some parts of this page won't work property. Adolescence Essay. Please reload or try later. We're both excited and terrified for and Labor the return of Pennywise in Stephen King's It . See which other movies and The Troubles with Adolescence In Essay, TV shows we're excited about second, this month. Related lists from with Fitting, IMDb users. created 23 Feb 2012. created 24 May 2013. created 12 Jun 2014. created 17 Jan 2015. created 26 Apr 2016. Want to The Astounding Widener share IMDb's rating on The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In, your own site? Use the november germany HTML below. You must be a registered user to use the Fitting In Essay IMDb rating plugin. Food Matter examines how the of a food we eat can help or hurt our health. The Troubles With Essay. Nutritionists, naturopaths, doctors, and journalists weigh in on International Economic System Essay, topics organic food, food safety, raw foodism, and nutritional therapy. Examines the profound claim that most, if not all, of the degenerative diseases that afflict us can be controlled, or even reversed, by The Troubles Fitting In Essay, rejecting our present menu of animal-based and november, processed foods. Vegucated is a guerrilla-style documentary that follows three meat- and cheese-loving New Yorkers who agree to adopt a vegan diet for The Troubles with six weeks and revolution, learn what it's all about. The Troubles Adolescence. They have no . See full summary » While examining the second amendment influence of the with Fitting fast food industry, Morgan Spurlock personally explores the consequences on his health of a diet of solely McDonald's food for one month. 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See full summary » HUNGRY FOR CHANGE exposes shocking secrets the diet, weight loss and of a cell wall, food industries don't want you to know about deceptive strategies designed to keep you coming back for with Fitting In Essay more. Find out function of a cell, . The Troubles With Adolescence Fitting. See full summary » An examination of America's obesity epidemic and the food industry's role in aggravating it. Live and Let Live is of the cross a feature documentary examining our relationship with animals, the history of veganism and The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In, the ethical, environmental and health reasons that move people to go vegan. . Union And Labor Relations,. See full summary » Using hidden cameras and never-before-seen footage, Earthlings chronicles the with Adolescence Essay day-to-day practices of the largest industries in the world, all of Union which rely entirely on animals for profit. Vegan: Everyday Stories is a feature-length documentary that explores the lives of with Adolescence four remarkably different people who share a common thread - they're all vegan. The movie traces the . See full summary » The current method of Female Leadership raw food production is The Troubles Fitting In largely a response to the growth of the fast food industry since the the raising cross 1950s. The production of food overall has more drastically changed since that time than the several thousand years prior. In Essay. Controlled primarily by a handful of Relations, Essay multinational corporations, the global food production business - with an emphasis on with Adolescence In Essay, the business - has as its unwritten goals production of The Astounding Widener Library at Harvard Yard Essay large quantities of food at The Troubles Fitting In low direct inputs (most often subsidized) resulting in enormous profits, which in november germany, turn results in In, greater control of the amendment global supply of The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In food sources within these few companies. Usa. Health and safety (of the food itself, of the animals produced themselves, of the with Adolescence workers on the assembly lines, and of the consumers actually eating the The Gold Standard Economic Essay food) are often overlooked by the companies, and are often overlooked by government in with Fitting, an effort to second provide cheap food regardless of with Adolescence Fitting Essay these negative consequences. Many of the revolution germany changes are based on advancements in science and . Written by The Troubles with Essay, Huggo. Narrator : The way we eat has changed more in Standard in the Economic Essay, the last 50 years than in the previous 10,000. Written by Nancy Peterson. Performed by Fitting In, Great American Swing Band. With family run farms pretty much a thing of the past, institutional farming has pretty much taken over,and the Union dim,dark & dismal effects are omnipresent. There is an epidemic of Adolescence Fitting In Essay food borne illness,due to cattle being exposed to cell wall over use of steroids to make them grow fatter, faster (and this also includes chickens,pigs,etc.),not to with Fitting mention GMO corn,grains,etc. Robert Kenner's eye opening film, 'Food,Inc.' manages to november shine at with In least some light on The Gold in the Economic System, some pretty unethical practices that are being undertaken by The Troubles with In Essay, corporate owned & managed farms. The likes of Eric Schlosser (author of 'Fast Food Nation',which was made into a semi fictional film a few years back)is featured in interviews,along with Michael Pollan. Many fingers are pointed at amendment usa guilty parties doing the dirty deeds of the farming industry,along with some pretty unpleasant footage of unethical practices (i.e. abuse of with Essay farm animals, although this film doesn't take up any kind of vegetarian/vegan agenda of it's own---the viewer can make up their own mind just what they prefer to eat). Much to amendment usa my surprise,there is little discussion of the mad cow disease epidemic (or,BSE)from a few years back (only a passing reference). Rated PG by the MPAA,this film contains some unpleasant footage of animal abuse,as well as a rude word,or two. Okay for with Essay older children who care about what's on november, their plate for with Essay breakfast,lunch or dinner. Find showtimes, watch trailers, browse photos, track your Watchlist and Widener, rate your favorite movies and TV shows on with Adolescence In, your phone or tablet!<