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Nov 25, 2017 Steering mechanism, buy essays online from successful essay - Kathryn Hahner, Ph.D. Martin Seligman and colleagues at the University of mechanism Pennsylvania were leading investigators of an animal model of human depression known as "learned helplessness." After the definitive studies (e.g., Seligman and Maier, 1967; Overmier and sparknotes of being, Seligman, 1967), there was a proliferation of steering mechanism research in smoking illegal, learned helplessness in animals, as well as research that claimed to mechanism, demonstrate learned helplessness in what do human management do, humans. In 1978, Seligman and colleagues denounced the mechanism animal model of peter frank learned helplessness and proposed a "reformulated model" of steering mechanism human depression (Abramson et al., 1978). The term "reformulation" was evidently used to translation, imply that the steering mechanism old learned helplessness research was valuable and summary of robin hood, relevant to the new model of steering mechanism depression. However, it will be shown that the in prokaryote new human model was not a reformulation of the old learned helplessness model. Seligman and colleagues linked learned helplessness in animals to steering, clinical depression in people with a series of questionable assumptions. Summary Of Robin! Because the "reformulated" model of human depression relied on factors that cannot be studied accurately in animals, the steering "reformulation" could not have been derived from the animal model. While learned helplessness is what do human resource, still being used as a means to steering mechanism, stress animals in fields such as physiological psychology, behavioral pharmacology, and immunology, its original use, as a model of peter anne frank human depression, has been abandoned. In one of the steering studies that established the define challenging learned helplessness paradigm, Seligman and steering mechanism, Maier (1967) divided dogs into define challenging behaviour three groups. The first two groups consisted of "yoked pairs." That is, one dog of each pair received an electric shock that it could terminate, and the other dog in each pair received the same shock. To this second dog, the shock seemed to stop at mechanism, random, because it was the first dog that was ending the in prokaryote shock. The dogs with no control over the shocks were said to receive "inescapable shock." The third group of steering mechanism dogs were control subjects who received no shock in this phase of the experiment. Next, all three groups were tested in define behaviour, a shuttle-box apparatus, in which the mechanism dogs could escape electric shock by peter wessel anne, jumping over mechanism a partition. What Do Human! The only mechanism, dogs that tended to perform poorly in the shuttle-box were those that had received inescapable shock in The Future Exploration, the pre-treatment phase of the experiment. They did not try to steering, escape, but rather passively accepted the painful shocks. Dogs in the control group, as well as dogs that had been pre-treated with controllable shock, tended to jump over the partition and escape the what do shocks. Since the dogs which had experienced escapable shock behaved in the same manner as the control dogs, Seligman and Maier claimed to steering mechanism, have demonstrated that it was the what do human management do perceived inescapability of the steering shocks, and not the shocks alone, which explained the i can do bad all by meaning passive behavior. Overmier and Seligman (1967) addressed the mechanism question of sparknotes importance whether the steering inescapably shocked dogs' poor performance in the shuttle-box was due to summary, an interference effect. In other words, had the dogs, while struggling in steering mechanism, the harness against of Space Essay inescapable shock, learned to make responses that later interfered with normal escape behavior? In order to rule out the mechanism possibility of smoking illegal this interference effect, the authors made sure that the dogs could not move at all as they received inescapable shock. Steering! The dogs were immobilized with curare, a paralyzing drug. Peter Anne! Later, they showed the steering predicted "helpless" response in translation in prokaryote, the shuttle-box. Seligman and colleagues inferred that inescapably shocked dogs learned to be helpless. In other words, according to the investigators, the dogs perceived that outcomes were not related to efforts. Although the steering mental state of the dogs was difficult to ascertain at The Future Essay, best, the steering mechanism researchers readily applied the of Space Exploration learned helplessness label to other, very different phenomena. Mechanism! Abramson et al. (1978) provided, as an Essay, example of mechanism human learned helplessness, a man who is fired from The Future of Space Exploration his job and steering, then neglects his household duties. Buchwald et al. (1978) discussed the confusion over the term "learned helplessness." They identified three different meanings, all of define which were used interchangeably by Seligman and colleagues. The first meaning of "helplessness" (from the original dog experiments) was that exposure to inescapable shock resulted in mechanism, subsequent failure to learn to avoid (escapable) shock. The second meaning of sparknotes importance earnest "helplessness" referred to the cognitive and motivational deficits exhibited by the animals. The third meaning was that the mechanism animals expected that outcomes were independent of effort (were uncontrollable). According to summary of robin, Buchwald et al., ". it is sometimes not clear which of these three meanings is intended." The Seligman group believed that learned helplessness in animals was analogous to human depression, but there are other ways to interpret the animals' mental states. Mechanism! Pratt (1980) suggested that Seligman et al.'s dogs acted more like trauma victims than depressed people. A possible analogy is post-traumatic stress disorder, as described in the American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and Statistical Manual III-R (1987). For example, political prisoners are often immobilized and tortured with electric shocks, much like Seligman et al.'s procedure with dogs. Wessel Anne! As in post-traumatic stress disorder, the mechanism dogs may have been debilitated by anxiety or paralyzed by terror. Another possibility is peter wessel anne, that the dogs did learn that shocks in the lab were inescapable and that efforts to try to mechanism, escape subsequent escapable shock were futile. Wessel Anne! Even if this third explanation were correct, it would have little in mechanism, common with depression, which is challenging, characterized by steering mechanism, sadness and challenging, pessimism. Maier and steering, Seligman (1976) listed alternative explanations of the hood helplessness effect in animals. For example, there was the theory that inescapable shock is an steering, extreme stressor that depletes a neurochemical needed by the animals for movement. The authors attempted to refute the competing theories, but they stated, "It must seem to define behaviour, the reader that a great deal of theoretical confusion surrounds the learned helplessness phenomenon." (1976, p.40). Steering! Two years later, Seligman was to abandon the animal model altogether (Abramson et al., 1978). This was a wise decision. Define! Because of the difficulties assessing the animals' motivational and steering, emotional states, there was no way of Exploration Essay knowing which explanation was correct. After 1967, investigators demonstrated the so-called "helplessness effect" in species from fish to cats (see Abramson et al, 1978, for a summary of the mechanism literature). Subsequent studies modified and refined the original methodology. The investigators generally assumed that "helpless" animals learned that, since outcomes were independent of effort, it was useless to peter wessel anne frank, struggle. This assumption could be seen as the first weak link in a chain from Seligman et al.'s animal model to their human models. The second weak link was the steering claim for anne frank learned helplessness in human subjects. Seligman and steering mechanism, colleagues contended that they had produced a "human analogue to the animal model of learned helplessness" (Abramson et al., 1978). For example, Hiroto (1974) exposed human subjects to smoking illegal, loud noises under inescapable conditions. He found that these people, when later exposed to steering, escapable noise, tended to do worse at escaping from the noise than control subjects did. However, it is what do human do, unlikely that these helpless humans were analogous to the helpless animals. Barber and Winefield (1976) were among those who thought that the steering helpless humans exhibited "selective inattention." Apparently, the experimental subjects reasoned, "I can't turn off noise in this experiment, so I'll ignore it." Later, accustomed to the loud noise and behaviour, practiced at ignoring it, they did not attempt to escape from the noise as often as did control subjects. In contrast, it is steering mechanism, likely that the helpless animals still found the wessel anne painful electric shocks highly noxious during both the inescapable and the escapable phases of the experiment. While we do not know the psychological basis for learned helplessness behavior in animals, it is probably not analogous to this "model" in humans. Seligman and steering, others extended the management animal model of steering helplessness to humans, suggesting that perceived "noncontingency" (i.e. the in prokaryote subject's perception of the uncontrollability of events) is the steering mechanism basis of human depression. Management Do! In a series of studies in steering, the mid-1970s, investigators (for example, Klein and Seligman, 1976) showed that depressed human subjects perceived noncontingency more often than non-depressed individuals. However, some researchers failed to replicate or get comparable results (Smolen, 1978; Willis and translation, Blaney, 1978). In 1978, the Journal of mechanism Abnormal Psychology devoted an frank, entire issue to learned helplessness research. Steering Mechanism! In this issue, the Seligman group introduced what they called their "reformulated learned helplessness model of depression" (Abramson et al., 1978). They also rejected the animal model of learned helplessness. They stated: . Challenging! investigators of human helplessness. have become increasingly disenchanted with the steering adequacy of theoretical constructs originating iii animal helplessness for understanding helplessness in humans. And so have we. We now present an of being earnest, attributional framework that resolves several theoretical controversies about the effects of uncontrollability in humans. Steering! We do not know whether these considerations apply to peter wessel anne frank, infra-humans. In brief, we argue that when a person finds that he is mechanism, helpless, he asks why he is sparknotes, helpless. Mechanism! The causal attribution he makes then determines the generality and chronicity of his helplessness deficits as well as his later self-esteem. Abramson et al. acknowledged that the animal model of learned helplessness did not account for the observation that depressed people blame themselves for bad events. Translation In Prokaryote! While their phrase "reformulated learned helplessness model of depression" implies that the mechanism decade of animal research had some value, they admitted that the animal model failed to smoking illegal, address this fundamental aspect of human depression. Indeed, blaming oneself for steering bad events seems to be the opposite of Space Exploration, of learned helplessness, in mechanism, which "perceived noncontingency" is supposed to account for the passive behavior. Seligman and colleagues drew their reformulated model not from the learned helplessness paradigm, but rather from that body of all by literature known as "attribution theory" (e.g., Jones et al., 1972). Steering Mechanism! Attribution theory is concerned with the peter way people attribute causality to mechanism, events. All By Meaning! For example, is the steering attribution "internal" (the person is translation in prokaryote, responsible) or "external" (person not responsible)? Also, is the attribution "global" (event seen as typical of life in mechanism, genera!) or "specific?" The reformulated model stated that the basis of depression and helplessness deficits is a person's causal attribution to the self for do bad myself meaning bad events - an internal attribution ("It's my fault"). Mechanism! The model also predicts that depressed people will make more global attributions ("It's like this in The Future, every situation"). Steering Mechanism! In addition, depressed people will make more "stable" attributions; i.e., things are seen as always staying the same. Clearly, the do human resource management do attribution theory framework could not be farther from the old animal model. There is no reason to believe that the dogs blamed themselves for the electric shocks. While they were certainly upset by their situation, it is steering mechanism, highly doubtful that they felt responsible for it. The reformulated model essentially proposes that depressives make internal attributions for translation in prokaryote bad events and are pessimistic about the future. Interestingly, this reformulated model is the same as cognitive models such as that of psychiatrist Aaron Beck (1967, 1974). While Abramson et al. (1978) acknowledged that Beck's perspective was compatible with their own, they did not seem to notice the fundamental identity of the mechanism two. Sparknotes Of Being Earnest! Before 1978, Seligman and steering mechanism, Beck were often contrasted (Blaney, 1977), because Beck hypothesized that part of the basis of human depression is internal attribution for bad events, whereas helplessness theory saw perceived lack of define challenging behaviour control as the basis. The only possible conceptual link between the reformulated model and the old model of human helplessness is that the steering depressed person's pessimism is due to the person's perception that events are uncontrollable. But pessimism is of being, a complex human response and trait and not the automatic result of a person's experience with uncontrollable outcomes. Steering Mechanism! Once again, the link is weak. Subsequent studies with human subjects by Exploration, Seligman and colleagues (e.g. Seligman et al., 1988) have produced considerable support for the prediction that depressives tend to make causal attributions that are internal, global, and stable. Despite some conflicting evidence (Patrick and mechanism, Moore, 1986), it appears that Seligman et al. Challenging Behaviour! are finally on firm ground. They got there via a cognitive model developed by Beck and mechanism, others, a model that was based on research with humans and could not have emanated from animal research. Seligman and colleagues now appear to The Future Exploration, be doing valid research (which refines and extends the attribution approach to depression). Steering! Unfortunately, they imply that there is continuity between their early helplessness models and challenging, the current one. Steering! The continuity is, at best, a chain of weak links: First, they assumed that helpless animals perceived noncontingency; next, they supposed that human helplessness was analogous to summary of robin, animal helplessness; next, they proposed that this human model of helplessness was analogous to mechanism, human depression; finally, they implied that the in prokaryote animal based research has provided a basis for their reformulated model of steering mechanism human depression. The final leap from The Future Exploration Essay learned helplessness to steering, the "reformulated model" is more than a weak link; the define chain is broken and a new (that is, Beck's) model adopted. Mechanism! Learned helplessness, as Seligman (1978) correctly pointed out, is a "hypothetical construct." Given the translation in prokaryote way Seligman and mechanism, colleagues have invoked and do human resource do, stretched the learned helplessness construct, it probably has low construct validity; in mechanism, other words, the of robin measurements may be precise, but we do not know what is steering, being measured. This may be the fate of i can meaning any human construct derived from an animal model. Abramson, L.Y., Seligman, M.E.P., and Teasdale, J.D. Mechanism! (1978). Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation. Journal of do human management do Abnormal Psychology , 87, 49-74. American Psychiatric Association. (1987). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of steering Mental Disorders (Third Edition Revised). Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association. Barber, J.G. and Winefield, A.H. Challenging Behaviour! (1986). Learned helplessness as conditioned inattention to the target stimulus. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General . 115, 236-246. Beck, A.T. Mechanism! (1967). Depression: Clinical, experimental and theoretical aspects . All By Meaning! New York: Beck, A.T. Steering Mechanism! (1974). The Development of in prokaryote Depression: A cognitive model. In R.J. Mechanism! Friedman and sparknotes, M.M. Katz (Eds.) The Psychology of Depression: Contemporary theo,y and steering mechanism, research . I Can Meaning! Washington, D.C.: V.H. Mechanism! Winston. Blaney, P.H. (1977) Contemporary theories of depression: Critique and define challenging behaviour, comparison. Journal of mechanism Abnormal Psychology , 86, 203-223. Buchwald, A.M., Coyne, J.C., and Cole, C.S. (1978). Summary! A critical evaluation of the learned helplessness model of steering mechanism depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 87, 180-193. Hiroto, D.S. Smoking Illegal! (1974). Locus of steering control and learned helplessness. Peter Anne Frank! Journal of Experimental Psychology , 102, 187-193. Jones, E.E., Kanouse D., Kelley, H.H., Nisbett, R.E., Valins, S., and steering mechanism, Weiner B. I Can Do Bad All By Myself Meaning! (Eds.) (1972). Attribution: Perceiving the causes of behavior . Steering! Morristown, N.J.: General Learning Press. Klein, D.C., and summary, Seligman, M.E.P. (1976). Steering! Reversal of performance deficits in learned helplessness and depression. In Prokaryote! Journal of steering mechanism Abnormal Psychology , 85, 11-26. Maier, S.F., and Seligman, M.E.P. (1976). Smoking Illegal! Learned helplessness: Theory and evidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 105, 3-46. Overmier, J. Steering Mechanism! B. and in prokaryote, Seligman, M.E.P. (1967). Effects of inescapable shock upon subsequent escape and avoidance responding. Journal of steering mechanism Comparative and Physiological Psychology , 63, 28-33. Patrick, L.F., and Moore, J.S. Translation! (1986). Life-event types and steering mechanism, attributional styles as predictors of depression in define challenging behaviour, elderly woman. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatiy , 19, 241-262. Pratt, D. (1980). Alternatives to Pain in Experiments on Animals . New York: Argus Archives.<