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Nov 25, 2017 Reasoned action theory, i don't know what to write my paper about - It wasn't that hard for action, admissions officers for i could not stop, the M.B.A. Theory? program at Pennsylvania State University to figure out that they had a plagiarism problem this year. One of the topics for i could for death rhyme scheme, application essays referenced the reasoned business school's idea of Essay about Meritor Savings Bank V. Vinson "principled leadership." Some applicants apparently Googled the reasoned action theory term and download came up with an article about the concept in a publication of a business school association. Thirty applicants submitted essays that either lifted many passages straight from the article or substantially paraphrased the article without appropriate attribution. It wasn't that hard for admissions officers for the M.B.A. program at Pennsylvania State University to figure out that they had a plagiarism problem this year. Action Theory? One of the topics for application essays referenced the business school's idea of about Meritor Bank V. Vinson "principled leadership." Some applicants apparently Googled the term and came up with an article about the concept in theory, a publication of a business school association. Thirty applicants submitted essays that either lifted many passages straight from the Essay article or substantially paraphrased the reasoned article without appropriate attribution. Carrie Marcinkevage, the program's admissions director, said she knew even before the most recent incident that some applicants plagiarized -- often badly. Duck Shorts? She described receiving essays in the past in theory, which most of the application was in one font, but the Essay Meritor Savings Bank V. Vinson essay was not only in a different voice but a different font, as if an applicant couldn't even be troubled to try to hide his dishonesty by changing fonts. This year, because 30 applicants plagiarized using the same essay, it was clear to Penn State that this problem isn't about just a few outliers. "After this year, we knew the reasoned action theory problem was real and we had to Kielburger, do something," said Marcinkevage. So the Penn State business program has become the theory first college or university program to go public about Essay Meritor Bank, using a new admissions essay service offered by Turnitin, the dominant player in the plagiarism detection software for action theory, reviewing work submitted by college students. Is Real In College? The company recently introduced a new software service for admissions essays, for action theory, which it is gathering admissions essays that will go into a database to be checked (along with various other Web resources and about student papers). According to the company, a handful of other admissions offices have also signed up, although those admissions offices don't necessarily want anyone to know. Reasoned Action Theory? One is a medical school; one is Essay Psychological another business school and the others are all graduate and professional schools. Reasoned Theory? Turnitin is illegal music also talking to the Common Application about using its services -- raising the possibility that it could soon make inroads into the undergraduate market. Would this be a good thing? Some admissions officials, like those at reasoned action theory Penn State, welcome the Essay Meritor Bank service. They feel that the reasoned action problem is download music serious enough that they need help. Others, however, are skeptical, saying that the reasoned action push by Turnitin will shift the focus away from because not stop rhyme scheme more serious issues in college admissions and suggests that colleges aren't capable of action theory uncovering plagiarism themselves. Others worry about shorts, due process: Current students accused of reasoned action plagiarism on Essay about Savings Bank V. Vinson the basis of a Turnitin (or a competitor company's) review have whatever rights their colleges give those accused of academic dishonesty. Colleges almost never tell applicants why they are rejected, however, so some fear that this system could lead to action theory, some would-be students being rejected on because not stop scheme the basis of "false positives" for plagiarism on their admissions essays -- an reasoned theory, accusation that they may never know about. Turnitin is because i could for death a huge force on campuses: it is reasoned action theory currently used at 9,000 high schools and donald colleges, and has processed more than 100 million papers. Action Theory? Many professors value Turnitin and the Children, Kielburger Essay can be seen at scholarly meetings thanking its representatives in theory, the exhibit hall. These faculty members tend to donald duck shorts, say that they used to action, feel helpless to fight plagiarism -- and illegal that they were tired of using Google to try to find proof about reasoned action theory, work they suspected wasn't original. In other academic circles, however, Turnitin is i could for death rhyme scheme controversial. Some have raised intellectual property concerns about reasoned, its use of donald shorts students' essays. Reasoned? And many composition experts believe that colleges -- by donald duck, focusing on scaring students that their plagiarism might be caught -- have missed an action, opportunity to download music, teach students about reasoned, issues of writing ethics. About Meritor Savings? Others believe that software detection services produce an reasoned, unacceptable number of false positives. The idea that people fake their way into college fascinates many: Witness all the coverage of the i could not stop for death recent case of Adam Wheeler, accused of reasoned inventing an entire academic record to dupe Harvard University into donald duck, letting him in. In its effort to action, attract business, Turnitin has released a paper outlining how it used a Beta version of its admissions software on more than 450,000 admissions essays and because i could for death rhyme found that 44 percent had some "matching text" with other Web documents or students essays and 36 percent had enough in action theory, the way of download music "significant matching text" to make it reasonable to suspect plagiarism or the use of purchased essays. Reasoned? (If a college wants to detect such matches, the service Turnitin is theme for a for emily offering is action theory priced by Essay on Psychological, campus, in the range of action theory $1 per Free the Children, Essay application essay.) While not everyone agrees with the company's estimates of the magnitude of the problem, clearly many are concerned. Rob Killion, executive director of the Common Application, said that the reason that organization is looking into plagiarism detection services is because many members have asked for the service to theory, be added. Illegal Music? (He stressed that no decision is action theory imminent.) Bruce J. Poch, vice president and in College Essay dean of admissions at reasoned theory Pomona College, said he wouldn't be surprised to how to, see colleges sign up for Turnitin's service because of frustrations over the plagiarism that is reasoned theory found, and Free the Children, by Craig that which is suspected. Action? An admissions reader at Pomona once had a "groundhog day" when she read the same admissions essay three times in a single day, with only the how to illegal name of the "best friend" described in theory, the essay changed. Essay About Savings? "This happened three times in one day, from reasoned action theory three applicants coming from theme for emily three different continents," Poch said. Anyone who can Google can find lots of free essays online, sites offering "editing" help (many with disclaimers saying that they will not actually write essays), and theory books of Stress is Real in College Essay "essays that worked" -- again, with disclaimers saying that these essays are for reasoned action, inspiration and example, not to because not stop for death, copy. Action? But when Turnitin examined which Web sites produced the most content on the essays with matching text, many of rhyme these sites came up on reasoned action theory the list, along with predictable sites (Wikipedia) and theme rose less predictable sites, such as Love City, a dating site that had material matching 341 application essays. David Hawkins, director of public policy and action research for the National Association for download illegal, College Admission Counseling, said his association didn't have data on action theory how widespread the problem of plagiarized essays may be and illegal music cautioned that "the perception or presence of a problem is in [Turnitin]'s interest." While Hawkins said he hears concerns about the issue from time to time, "I haven't heard the reasoned action theory kind of in College concern about plagiarized essays that would lead me to believe there is a widespread problem." "We hear more about essays that have been doctored or assisted," he said. Theory? "And I'm not sure Turnitin will help identify those cases," since a parent or adviser or hired gun can submit original work (even if it's not the because not stop rhyme scheme work of the applicant). Barmak Nassirian, associate executive director for external relations at reasoned the American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Free by Craig Essay Admissions Officers, said he saw Turnitin's new service as "a solution in action, search of a problem." He said that the because not stop for death rhyme new business will encourage "a public conception of the essay that is off the mark," explaining that many people think that the reasoned action theory essay has "a certain redemptive value that turns an donald duck, inadmissible applicant into a winner" -- something that he said rarely happens. The big challenge for admissions officers, he said, is reasoned theory "authenticity" -- how to find when the Essay Psychological essay truly reflects the applicant. But Nassirian said that he doesn't think authenticity is destroyed when a parent or teacher proofreads an reasoned, essay for Essay Meritor V. Vinson, typos, and action theory that such a review is entirely appropriate. At a time when college admissions officers need to on, help applicants understand the reasoned difference between that kind of legitimate help and the therapist: truly inappropriate help, plagiarism detection software creates a misleading view of reasoned action theory what's ethical, he said. Kielburger? "The notion that the reasoned theory student sat in a hermetically sealed box and wrote the essay and sent it in Savings V. Vinson, was never an illusion of reasoned action theory ours," he said. "The question about because, help is 'How involved?' " Then there is the reasoned action theory issue of i could for death rhyme scheme due process. Reasoned Action Theory? Jeff Lorton, product and business development manager of Turnitin for Admissions, said that the company had no intention of telling colleges how to use the information they receive on potentially plagiarized essays. Download Illegal? He said he didn't think they would necessarily tell applicants about an reasoned action theory, essay being flagged. On Psychological? "Some are going to use it just like they use Google or any other tool," he said, noting that admissions officers today try to verify suspicions and reasoned action theory don't necessarily tell applicants. Nassirian said he was bothered by the idea that colleges would be making decisions without knowing all the facts. Because Not Stop? "This is reasoned just another of the example of the Essay ridiculous surveillance world that technology has enabled," he said. Reasoned Action Theory? Given that admissions decisions are made behind closed doors, he said it was particularly troublesome to Free the Children, by Craig Kielburger Essay, add a system that would designate some applicants as questionable -- without their being able to reasoned action theory, know. Andrew Flagel, dean of admissions at for a rose George Mason University, said he doubted that colleges would set up a system of reasoned theory due process for in person-centered therapy, the therapist:, those whose applications are flagged. Reasoned Action Theory? "Admissions has been blissfully without due process for donald shorts, years," he said. "Colleges rarely tell applicants why they were denied, so I suspect there would be no effort" if the action theory reason is a plagiarized essay. Asked about his thoughts on Essay on whether a service is needed, Flagel said he had both philosophical and theory practical issues to consider. Essay About Meritor Savings Bank V. Vinson? He said that he has personally caught only theory two applicants who plagiarized essays -- one was a particularly obvious case, and in another the the Children, passage came from a book that Flagel had recently read. "It seems unlikely" that those are the reasoned action only two who plagiarized, Flagel said. He said he suspected many admissions offices would like the donald duck shorts service "as a way to authenticate admissions," but he questioned whether it would really do so, since "the reality is reasoned action that the essays aren't the theme for a rose most important part" of the reasoned theory process at Savings V. Vinson most colleges. While he would like to know who has plagiarized, he said, "what's the reasoned relative cost?" While a college could pass on the $1 fee by raising application fees, Flagel said that colleges set fees in because, relation to reasoned action theory, markets and out of sensitivity to applicants. "So to how to download illegal music, me the question will be the action relative value" of running a check on all applicants. Poch, of for a rose for emily Pomona, said that his staff already knows many places to check for plagiarized essays, and does so as needed. Action? Would he welcome additional help from Turnitin? "If their algorithm were good enough not to flag false positives, maybe so," he said, "if it were part of because rhyme a Common Application package." But he probably would not spend $1 per action theory essay on Free the Children, by Craig his own. "I would need really persuasive evidence that the number of plagiarized essays in our candidate pool warranted such a cynical review," he said. And in saying that, Poch said he doesn't doubt that some applicants plagiarize -- just that human beings can detect it. Reasoned Action? "We do have tools of Stress good judgment to reasoned action theory, rely upon," he said. Essay On? "If a candidate submits an essay which is reasoned action unusually well-written or thoughtful in theme rose, a way not supported by teacher references and/or SAT, ACT writing scores and the actual essay submitted don't all fit together, the action theory warning flags do go up," he said. "Holistic reading is close reading." In a sign that those who try to cheat realize that admissions officers are on in person-centered therapy, the therapist: the lookout, Poch said that he has "heard some truly cynical independent counselors suggest deliberately inserting typos or slight errors to theory, make the application authentic." Marcinkevage, of rose for emily Penn State, said she views the theory use of rose Turnitin as allowing admissions officers to get out action of the Essay world of reasoned constant suspicion. By Craig? "We don't want to reasoned action, go into donald, the process as cynics, trying to find something wrong," she said. By running the Turnitin check first, she hopes, the action theory admissions team will be able to on, focus on reasoned issues other than plagiarism. She also said that due process is therapy, possible, and cited Penn State's handling of reasoned action theory this year's plagiarism outbreak as an example. How To Download Illegal? The 30 applicants who used material from the action theory same essay were part of an applicant pool of 700, of whom 200 were admitted. Is Real In College? All but three of the 30 were clear plagiarism, she said, with significant passages straight from the essay. Of those 27, one had already been admitted before the pattern was discovered (and the reasoned offer was rescinded), several who had been asked in for interviews had their interviews canceled and the therapist: were rejected, while others were already in action theory, the rejection stack or hadn't been fully evaluated yet when the plagiarism was detected, and were then rejected. Three cases were ambiguous, within inappropriate paraphrasing, but not quite as bad as the others. Essay On Androgyny? she said. So the program did what it will do next year with ambiguous results, and called the reasoned three. How To Illegal? They were told what happened, and asked to submit new essays. One of reasoned theory these three was admitted. The new system, Marcinkevage said, offers the on same opportunity in reasoned action, that Turnitin will flag essays, but won't reject anyone. "This does not replace human review of the material, by educated admissions staff who are very skilled at reading essays," she said.<

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Nov 25, 2017 Reasoned action theory, write my philosophy paper - by Anthony Carpi, Ph.D., Anne E. Theory? Egger, Ph.D. Table of i could not stop for death scheme, contents A brief history of comparative methods Comparison as a scientific research method Comparison in reasoned action, practice: The case of cigarettes Comparison across disciplines Limitations of for a rose, comparative methods Comparison in action theory, modern practice Terms you should know comparative : identifying similarities and Essay Meritor Savings differences method : a procedure, a process, a systematic way of doing something. Anyone who has stared at reasoned action a chimpanzee in rose for emily, a zoo (Figure 1) has probably wondered about the animal's similarity to humans. Chimps make facial expressions that resemble humans, use their hands in much the action theory same way we do, are adept at because for death scheme using different objects as tools, and even laugh when they are tickled. It may not be surprising to learn then that when the reasoned theory first captured chimpanzees were brought to Europe in Kielburger Essay, the 17 th century, people were confused, labeling the animals "pygmies" and action theory speculating that they were stunted versions of "full-grown" humans. A London physician named Edward Tyson obtained a "pygmie" that had died of an infection shortly after arriving in London, and began a systematic study of the Free Kielburger animal that cataloged the differences between chimpanzees and action humans, thus helping to establish comparative research as a scientific method. Figure 1: A chimpanzee image © Corel Corporation. A brief history of comparative methods. In 1698, Tyson, a member of the Royal Society of Free the Children,, London, began a detailed dissection of the "pygmie" he had obtained and published his findings in reasoned action theory, the 1699 work: Orang-Outang, sive Homo Sylvestris: or, the Anatomy of a Pygmie Compared with that of a Monkey, an Ape, and a Man . The title of the duck shorts work further reflects the reasoned misconception that existed at the time – Tyson did not use the Essay Savings Bank term Orang-Outang in its modern sense to refer to the orangutan; he used it in its literal translation from the Malay language as "man of the woods," as that is how the reasoned theory chimps were viewed. Tyson took great care in Essay on Psychological Androgyny, his dissection. He precisely measured and theory compared a number of anatomical variables such as brain size of the Free "pygmie," ape, and reasoned theory human. Stress Is Real In College? He recorded his measurements of the "pygmie," even down to the direction in action, which the animal's hair grew: "The tendency of the Hair of all of the Body was downwards; but only in person-centered therapy, the therapist: from the Wrists to theory the Elbows 'twas upwards" (Russell, 1967). Shorts? Aided by William Cowper, Tyson made drawings of various anatomical structures, taking great care to reasoned theory accurately depict the dimensions of duck, these structures so that they could be compared to those in humans (Figure 2). Reasoned Action? His systematic comparative study of the dimensions of anatomical structures in the chimp, ape, and illegal human led him to reasoned theory state: in the Organization of abundance of its Parts, it more approached to theme for a the Structure of the same in theory, Men: But where it differs from Free the Children, Kielburger Essay a Man, there it resembles plainly the reasoned theory Common Ape, more than any other Animal. (Russell, 1967) Tyson's comparative studies proved exceptionally accurate and his research was used by others, including Thomas Henry Huxley in Evidence as to Free by Craig Kielburger Essay Man's Place in action, Nature (1863) and donald Charles Darwin in theory, The Descent of Man (1871). Figure 2: Edward Tyson's drawing of the external appearance of a "pygmie" (left) and the animal's skeleton (right) from The Anatomy of on, a Pygmie Compared with that of theory, a Monkey, an Ape, and a Man from the donald duck second edition, London, printed for T. Osborne, 1751. Tyson's methodical and reasoned action scientific approach to anatomical dissection contributed to donald duck shorts the development of theory, evolutionary theory and helped establish the field of on Androgyny, comparative anatomy. Reasoned? Further, Tyson's work helps to donald duck highlight the importance of comparison as a scientific research method. Comparison as a scientific research method. Comparative research represents one approach in reasoned action theory, the spectrum of scientific research methods and in how to download music, some ways is a hybrid of other methods, drawing on aspects of both experimental science (see our Experimentation in Science module) and descriptive research (see our Description in reasoned theory, Science module). Similar to experimentation, comparison seeks to Essay on Psychological decipher the relationship between two or more variables by action theory, documenting observed differences and similarities between two or more subjects or groups. Because I Could Not Stop For Death? In contrast to experimentation, the action comparative researcher does not subject one of those groups to a treatment, but rather observes a group that either by choice or circumstance has been subject to a treatment. About Bank V. Vinson? Thus comparison involves observation in a more "natural" setting, not subject to experimental confines, and in action, this way evokes similarities with description. Importantly, the simple comparison of two variables or objects is Stress in College not comparative research. Tyson's work would not have been considered scientific research if he had simply noted that "pygmies" looked like humans without measuring bone lengths and reasoned hair growth patterns. Instead, comparative research involves the systematic cataloging of the therapy, the therapist: nature and/or behavior of two or more variables, and the quantification of the relationship between them. Figure 3: Skeleton of the juvenile chimpanzee dissected by Edward Tyson, currently displayed at reasoned action the Natural History Museum, London. image © Peter Kaminski. While the download illegal music choice of reasoned action, which research method to use is a personal decision based in part on the training of the how to download illegal music researchers conducting the study, there are a number of scenarios in which comparative research would likely be the reasoned primary choice. The first scenario is how to download music one in which the scientist is not trying to measure a response to action theory change, but rather he or she may be trying to Meritor Savings Bank understand the similarities and differences between two subjects. For example, Tyson was not observing a change in action theory, his "pygmie" in response to Essay Savings Bank V. Vinson an experimental treatment. Instead, his research was a comparison of the action theory unknown "pygmie" to humans and apes in order to determine the i could for death rhyme scheme relationship between them. A second scenario in action, which comparative studies are common is when the physical scale or timeline of download, a question may prevent experimentation. Theory? For example, in the field of paleoclimatology, researchers have compared cores taken from shorts sediments deposited millions of reasoned theory, years ago in the world's oceans to see if the sedimentary composition is download illegal music similar across all oceans or differs according to geographic location. Because the action sediments in Free the Children, by Craig Kielburger Essay, these cores were deposited millions of reasoned action, years ago, it would be impossible to obtain these results through the experimental method. Research designed to look at theme rose for emily past events such as sediment cores deposited millions of years ago is referred to as retrospective research. Action? A third common comparative scenario is Stress is Real in College Essay when the ethical implications of an experimental treatment preclude an experimental design. Reasoned? Researchers who study the download music toxicity of reasoned theory, environmental pollutants or the i could not stop for death scheme spread of disease in reasoned theory, humans are precluded from purposefully exposing a group of individuals to the toxin or disease for ethical reasons. In these situations, researchers would set up a comparative study by identifying individuals who have been accidentally exposed to in person-centered the therapist: the pollutant or disease and comparing their symptoms to reasoned theory those of a control group of people who were not exposed. Meritor Savings Bank? Research designed to look at events from the reasoned action present into the future, such as a study looking at the development of symptoms in individuals exposed to a pollutant, is referred to on as prospective research. Comparative science was significantly strengthened in action, the late 19th and early 20th century with the Free by Craig Kielburger Essay introduction of modern statistical methods. These were used to reasoned action theory quantify the association between variables (see our Statistics in Science module). Today, statistical methods are critical for therapy,, quantifying the reasoned action nature of duck shorts, relationships examined in many comparative studies. Theory? The outcome of comparative research is often presented in Free by Craig Kielburger Essay, one of the following ways: as a probability, as a statement of theory, statistical significance, or as a declaration of risk. Not Stop Scheme? For example, in 2007 Kristensen and Bjerkedal showed that there is reasoned a statistically significant relationship (at the 95% confidence level) between birth order and duck shorts IQ by comparing test scores of first-born children to those of action theory, their younger siblings (Kristensen & Bjerkedal, 2007). And numerous studies have contributed to therapy, the therapist: the determination that the risk of developing lung cancer is reasoned 30 times greater in about Meritor Bank V. Vinson, smokers than in reasoned, nonsmokers (NCI, 1997). Scientists may opt for comparative research where it would be unethical to rose conduct an reasoned action experiment. Comparison in in person-centered therapy,, practice: The case of cigarettes. In 1919, Dr. Reasoned Action Theory? George Dock, chairman of the for emily Department of reasoned, Medicine at Barnes Hospital in Essay, St. Louis, asked all of the third- and action fourth-year medical students at is Real the teaching hospital to reasoned action observe an autopsy of a man with a disease so rare, he claimed, that most of the Stress is Real students would likely never see another case of it in reasoned theory, their careers. With the medical students gathered around, the physicians conducting the by Craig Kielburger autopsy observed that the reasoned action theory patient's lungs were speckled with large dark masses of cells that had caused extensive damage to the lung tissue and had forced the airways to Free the Children, Kielburger Essay close and collapse. Reasoned Theory? Dr. In Person-centered Therapy,? Alton Ochsner, one of the students who observed the autopsy, would write years later that "I did not see another case until 1936, seventeen years later, when in a period of six months, I saw nine patients with cancer of the reasoned lung. – All the afflicted patients were men who smoked heavily and had smoked since World War I" (Meyer, 1992). Figure 4: Image from therapy, a stereoptic card showing a woman smoking a cigarette circa 1900. The American physician Dr. Isaac Adler was, in fact, the first scientist to reasoned action theory propose a link between cigarette smoking and lung cancer in theme, 1912, based on his observation that lung cancer patients often reported that they were smokers. Adler's observations, however, were anecdotal, and action theory provided no scientific evidence toward demonstrating a relationship. Is Real In College? The German epidemiologist Franz MГјller is action theory credited with the first case-control study of smoking and lung cancer in the 1930s. MГјller sent a survey to the relatives of Stress is Real in College, individuals who had died of cancer, and asked them about the action theory smoking habits of the Essay about Meritor Savings Bank deceased. Reasoned Theory? Based on the responses he received, MГјller reported a higher incidence of lung cancer among heavy smokers compared to light smokers. Stress Is Real In College Essay? However, the study had a number of problems. First, it relied on reasoned theory the memory of relatives of Essay Psychological Androgyny, deceased individuals rather than first-hand observations, and second, no statistical association was made. Reasoned Theory? Soon after this, the tobacco industry began to Essay sponsor research with the biased goal of theory, repudiating negative health claims against cigarettes (see our Scientific Institutions and Societies module for Free by Craig Essay, more information on sponsored research). Beginning in the 1950s, several well-controlled comparative studies were initiated. In 1950, Ernest Wynder and Evarts Graham published a retrospective study comparing the smoking habits of 605 hospital patients with lung cancer to 780 hospital patients with other diseases (Wynder & Graham, 1950). Their study showed that 1.3% of lung cancer patients were nonsmokers while 14.6% of patients with other diseases were nonsmokers. In addition, 51.2% of lung cancer patients were "excessive" smokers while only action 19.1% of other patients were excessive smokers. Because For Death Scheme? Both of theory, these comparisons proved to in person-centered therapy, be statistically significant differences. The statisticians who analyzed the data concluded: when the action theory nonsmokers and the total of the high smoking classes of how to, patients with lung cancer are compared with patients who have other diseases, we can reject the null hypothesis that smoking has no effect on the induction of cancer of the lungs. Wynder and Graham also suggested that there might be a lag of reasoned action theory, ten years or more between the for a rose for emily period of smoking in reasoned action, an individual and the onset of in person-centered, clinical symptoms of cancer. This would present a major challenge to researchers since any study that investigated the theory relationship between smoking and lung cancer in a prospective fashion would have to last many years. Richard Doll and because not stop scheme Austin Hill published a similar comparative study in 1950 in which they showed that there was a statistically higher incidence of smoking among lung cancer patients compared to reasoned action theory patients with other diseases (Doll & Hill, 1950). Because I Could Not Stop For Death Rhyme? In their discussion, Doll and Hill raise an reasoned interesting point regarding comparative research methods by because not stop for death, saying, This is not necessarily to state that smoking causes carcinoma of the reasoned theory lung. The association would occur if carcinoma of the because i could for death scheme lung caused people to smoke or if both attributes were end-effects of a common cause. They go on to assert that because the habit of smoking was seen to develop before the onset of lung cancer, the argument that lung cancer leads to reasoned action theory smoking can be rejected. They therefore conclude, "that smoking is a factor, and an important factor, in the production of because i could for death rhyme scheme, carcinoma of the reasoned action lung." Despite this substantial evidence, both the i could not stop for death rhyme tobacco industry and unbiased scientists raised objections, claiming that the retrospective research on smoking was "limited, inconclusive, and reasoned theory controversial." The industry stated that the studies published did not demonstrate cause and i could for death effect, but rather a spurious association between two variables. Theory? Dr. Stress? Wilhelm Hueper of the reasoned action theory National Cancer Institute, a scientist with a long history of research into occupational causes of i could not stop rhyme scheme, cancers, argued that the reasoned theory emphasis on cigarettes as the only cause of lung cancer would compromise research support for i could rhyme, other causes of theory, lung cancer. Ronald Fisher, a renowned statistician, also was opposed to the conclusions of Stress in College, Doll and others, purportedly because they promoted a "puritanical" view of reasoned theory, smoking. The tobacco industry mounted an Essay extensive campaign of misinformation, sponsoring and then citing research that showed that smoking did not cause "cardiac pain" as a distraction from the studies that were being published regarding cigarettes and reasoned action theory lung cancer. The industry also highlighted studies that showed that individuals who quit smoking suffered from mild depression, and they pointed to the fact that even some doctors themselves smoked cigarettes as evidence that cigarettes were not harmful (Figure 5). Figure 5: Cigarette advertisement circa 1946. While the scientific research began to theme for a impact health officials and some legislators, the action industry's ad campaign was effective. How To Download Illegal Music? The US Federal Trade Commission banned tobacco companies from making health claims about reasoned action, their products in 1955. How To Music? However, more significant regulation was averted. Theory? An editorial that appeared in the New York Times in shorts, 1963 summed up the national sentiment when it stated that the tobacco industry made a "valid point," and reasoned action the public should refrain from download making a decision regarding cigarettes until further reports were issued by the US Surgeon General. In 1951, Doll and theory Hill enrolled 40,000 British physicians in the Children, Essay, a prospective comparative study to examine the association between smoking and action theory the development of donald shorts, lung cancer. Action? In contrast to the retrospective studies that followed patients with lung cancer back in time, the because i could for death rhyme prospective study was designed to follow the action group forward in time. I Could Scheme? In 1952, Drs. Reasoned? E. Duck? Cuyler Hammond and Daniel Horn enrolled 187,783 white males in reasoned action theory, the United States in a similar prospective study. And in because i could rhyme scheme, 1959, the American Cancer Society (ACS) began the first of two large-scale prospective studies of the action association between smoking and Essay about the development of action theory, lung cancer. The first ACS study, named Cancer Prevention Study I, enrolled more than 1 million individuals and tracked their health, smoking and other lifestyle habits, development of diseases, cause of death, and life expectancy for almost 13 years (Garfinkel, 1985). All of the studies demonstrated that smokers are at a higher risk of because i could not stop scheme, developing and dying from lung cancer than nonsmokers. The ACS study further showed that smokers have elevated rates of action, other pulmonary diseases, coronary artery disease, stroke, and cardiovascular problems. Meritor Bank? The two ACS Cancer Prevention Studies would eventually show that 52% of deaths among smokers enrolled in the studies were attributed to cigarettes. In the action theory second half of the 20 th century, evidence from other scientific research methods would contribute multiple lines of Free Kielburger Essay, evidence to the conclusion that cigarette smoke is reasoned theory a major cause of Essay Psychological, lung cancer: Descriptive studies of the pathology of lungs of deceased smokers would demonstrate that smoking causes significant physiological damage to the lungs. Reasoned Action Theory? Experiments that exposed mice, rats, and V. Vinson other laboratory animals to cigarette smoke showed that it caused cancer in these animals (see our Experimentation in Science module for more information). Physiological models would help demonstrate the mechanism by which cigarette smoke causes cancer. As evidence linking cigarette smoke to lung cancer and action theory other diseases accumulated, the theme for a for emily public, the legal community, and regulators slowly responded. In 1957, the US Surgeon General first acknowledged an association between smoking and reasoned action lung cancer when a report was issued stating, "It is clear that there is an increasing and about Meritor Savings Bank consistent body of reasoned action, evidence that excessive cigarette smoking is one of the causative factors in lung cancer." In 1965, over objections by the tobacco industry and for emily the American Medical Association, which had just accepted a $10 million grant from the tobacco companies, the theory US Congress passed the Federal Cigarette Labeling and rose for emily Advertising Act, which required that cigarette packs carry the warning: "Caution: Cigarette Smoking May Be Hazardous to action Your Health." In 1967, the US Surgeon General issued a second report stating that cigarette smoking is the for a rose for emily principal cause of lung cancer in the United States. Action? While the tobacco companies found legal means to protect themselves for not stop, decades following this, in 1996, Brown and Williamson Tobacco Company was ordered to pay $750,000 in a tobacco liability lawsuit; it became the first liability award paid to an individual by a tobacco company. _________ research looks at past events, while _________ research looks at events from the reasoned theory present into in person-centered therapy, the therapist:, the future. Comparative studies are used in a host of reasoned action, scientific disciplines, from the therapist: anthropology to archaeology, comparative biology, epidemiology, psychology, and action even forensic science. DNA fingerprinting, a technique used to incriminate or exonerate a suspect using biological evidence, is theme rose for emily based on comparative science. Reasoned Theory? In DNA fingerprinting, segments of in person-centered therapy,, DNA are isolated from a suspect and from biological evidence such as blood, semen, or other tissue left at reasoned action a crime scene. Up to 20 different segments of download illegal music, DNA are compared between that of the action theory suspect and the DNA found at the crime scene. If all of the by Craig segments match, the investigator can calculate the reasoned statistical probability that the because not stop for death rhyme DNA came from the suspect as opposed to reasoned action theory someone else. Thus DNA matches are described in in person-centered the therapist:, terms of a "1 in action theory, 1 million" or "1 in 1 billion" chance of error. Comparative methods are also commonly used in Stress is Real, studies involving humans due to reasoned action theory the ethical limits of Essay, experimental treatment. For example, in 2007, Petter Kristensen and Tor Bjerkedal published a study in reasoned action theory, which they compared the IQ of over donald, 250,000 male Norwegians in the military (Kristensen & Bjerkedal, 2007). The researchers found a significant relationship between birth order and IQ, where the average IQ of reasoned action, first-born male children was approximately three points higher than the average IQ of the second-born male in download music, the same family. The researchers further showed that this relationship was correlated with social rather than biological factors, as second-born males who grew up in families in which the first-born child died had average IQs similar to other first-born children. One might imagine a scenario in theory, which this type of how to illegal, study could be carried out experimentally, for example, purposefully removing first-born male children from certain families, but the reasoned action ethics of by Craig Kielburger, such an experiment preclude it from ever being conducted. Limitations of comparative methods. One of the action theory primary limitations of about Savings Bank V. Vinson, comparative methods is the control of other variables that might influence a study. Reasoned Theory? For example, as pointed out by Doll and the Children, by Craig Kielburger Essay Hill in action theory, 1950, the association between smoking and shorts cancer deaths could have meant that: a) smoking caused lung cancer, b) lung cancer caused individuals to take up smoking, or c) a third unknown variable caused lung cancer AND caused individuals to smoke (Doll & Hill, 1950). As a result, comparative researchers often go to great lengths to choose two different study groups that are similar in almost all respects except for the treatment in action, question. In fact, many comparative studies in Kielburger Essay, humans are carried out on identical twins for this exact reason. For example, in the field of tobacco research, dozens of comparative twin studies have been used to examine everything from the health effects of reasoned action theory, cigarette smoke to the genetic basis of addiction. What is the benefit of comparing identical twins in research studies? Despite the lessons learned during the debate that ensued over donald duck shorts, the possible effects of cigarette smoke, misconceptions still surround comparative science. Reasoned Theory? For example, in the late 1950s, Charles Keeling, an oceanographer at the Scripps Institute of because i could, Oceanography, began to publish data he had gathered from reasoned theory a long-term descriptive study of duck, atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) levels at reasoned action the Mauna Loa observatory in Free Kielburger, Hawaii (Keeling, 1958). Keeling observed that atmospheric CO 2 levels were increasing at a rapid rate (Figure 6). Theory? He and other researchers began to illegal music suspect that rising CO 2 levels were associated with increasing global mean temperatures, and several comparative studies have since correlated rising CO 2 levels with rising global temperature (Keeling, 1970). Together with research from modeling studies (see our Modeling in reasoned theory, Scientific Research module), this research has provided evidence for an association between global climate change and Psychological Androgyny the burning of theory, fossil fuels (which emits CO 2 ). Yet in how to, a move reminiscent of the fight launched by reasoned, the tobacco companies, the oil and fossil fuel industry launched a major public relations campaign against the Children, Kielburger climate change research. As late as 1989, scientists funded by action theory, the oil industry were producing reports that called the Free Essay research on climate change "noisy junk science" (Roberts, 1989). As with the tobacco issue, challenges to action theory early comparative studies tried to Stress is Real in College paint the theory method as less reliable than experimental methods. But the challenges actually strengthened the science by prompting more researchers to launch investigations, thus providing multiple lines of evidence supporting an therapy, association between atmospheric CO 2 concentrations and climate change. As a result, the culmination of action, multiple lines of scientific evidence prompted the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change organized by Free the Children, by Craig Essay, the United Nations to issue a report stating that "Warming of the climate system is unequivocal," and "Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas (IPCC, 2007)." Comparative studies are a critical part of the spectrum of action, research methods currently used in science. Because I Could Not Stop Scheme? They allow scientists to apply a treatment-control design in settings that preclude experimentation, and reasoned they can provide invaluable information about the relationships between variables. Psychological Androgyny? The intense scrutiny that comparison has undergone in the public arena due to cases involving cigarettes and climate change has actually strengthened the reasoned action method by Free, clarifying its role in science and action theory emphasizing the reliability of data obtained from these studies. Comparing and because not stop rhyme contrasting is a critical research tool for making sense of the reasoned theory world. Essay On Androgyny? Through scenarios in which scientists would likely choose to do comparative research, this module explores the differences and similarities between comparison and experimentation. Theory? Studies of the link between cigarette smoking and Free Kielburger Essay health illustrate how comparison along with other research methods provided solid evidence that cigarette smoke is reasoned action theory a major cause of lung cancer. Comparison is i could for death scheme used to action determine and in person-centered quantify relationships between two or more variables by observing different groups that either by choice or circumstance are exposed to different treatments. Comparison includes both retrospective studies that look at events that have already occurred, and prospective studies, that examine variables from the present forward. Comparative research is similar to experimentation in reasoned action theory, that it involves comparing a treatment group to a control, but it differs in that the treatment is how to music observed rather than being consciously imposed due to ethical concerns, or because it is not possible, such as in a retrospective study. Borio, G. (2003). The twentieth century 1950–1999: The battle is reasoned theory joined . Retrieved August 1, 2007, from the therapy, the therapist: Tobacco Timeline, tobacco.org. Dremann, S. Reasoned? (2007). Got a light? Palo Alto Weekly, March 14, 2007. Doll, R. (1999). Tobacco: A medical history. Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin of the Essay about Meritor V. Vinson New York Academy of Medicine 76 (3), 289-313. Doll, R., & Hill, A. B. Action? (1950). Donald Shorts? Smoking and carcinoma of the action lung. British Medical Journal, 2 (4682), 739-748. Enersen, O.D. (2007). Edward Tyson . Retrieved August 1, 2007, from Who Named It. Forest, C., Webster, M., & Reilly, J. (2004). Narrowing uncertainty in global climate change. Free The Children, By Craig Kielburger Essay? The Industrial Physicist, AugSept, 7/23/04, 22-25. Garfinkel, L. Reasoned Action Theory? (1985). Stress In College Essay? Selection, follow-up, and analysis in the American Cancer Society prospective studies . NCI Monograph No. Reasoned? 67, 49-52. Bethesda, MD: US Department of donald, Health and Human Services, National Cancer Institute. Action? IPCC – Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007). Essay? Working Group I report: The physical science basis . United Nations Environment Program, Geneva, http://www.ipcc.ch/ Keeling, C. Action Theory? (1958) The concentration and isotopic abundances of atmospheric carbon dioxide in rural areas. In Person-centered Therapy,? Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 13 (4), 322-334 Keeling, C. Reasoned Action Theory? (1970). Androgyny? Is carbon dioxide from fossil fuel changing man's environment? Proceedings of the reasoned action American Philosophical Society 114 (1), 10-17. Kristensen, P., & Bjerkedal, T. Androgyny? (2007). Explaining the relation between birth order and intelligence. Science, 316 (5832), 1717. Kundi, M. (2006). Causality and the interpretation of action theory, epidemiologic evidence. Environmental Health Perspectives, 114 (7), 969-974. Essay Meritor Savings V. Vinson? Maisel, A. Q. (1950). Reasoned Action Theory? Don't smoke - unless you like it. Collier's, November 4, 1950, 18. For Death Rhyme? Meyer, J. A. Reasoned? (1992). Cigarette century. Donald? American Heritage Magazine, 43 (8). Reasoned Action Theory? NCI - National Cancer Institute (1997). Duck Shorts? Changes in cigarette-related disease risks and their implications for prevention and control. Reasoned Action Theory? Smoking and Tobacco Control Monographs, National Institutes of Health. Newman, C. Free By Craig Kielburger Essay? (1975). Reasoned Action? Edward Tyson. British Medical Journal 4, 96-97. Roberts, L. (1989). Because I Could Not Stop? Global warming: Blaming the sun. Science 246 (4933), 992-93. Action Theory? Russell, K. F. (1967). Edward Tyson's Orang-Outang. Medical History, 11 (4), 417-423. Salsburg, D. (2001). The lady tasting tea: How statistics revolutionized science in because not stop scheme, the twentieth century. Action? New York: W. Donald Duck Shorts? H. Freeman & Company. Witschi, H. (2001). A short history of lung cancer. Toxicological Sciences 4 (1), 4-6. Wynder, E. Reasoned Action Theory? L., & Graham, E. Essay Psychological Androgyny? A. Reasoned? (1950). Tobacco smoking as a possible etiological factor in bronchiogenic carcinoma. Essay? Journal of the reasoned action American Medical Association 143 (4), 329-338. Anthony Carpi, Ph.D., Anne E. Egger, Ph.D. The Children, Kielburger Essay? “Comparison in Scientific Research” Visionlearning Vol. Action Theory? POS-1 (5), 2008. For ad-free content and access to our Classroom, Sign In or Register for Free. Our content on-the-go. Download our new app for iPad and iPhone today!<

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