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Reviews / Sport Nutrition.
EFFECTS OF PROTEIN AND AMINO-ACID SUPPLEMENTATION ON ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE.
Richard B Kreider PhD.
Exercise & Sport Nutrition Laboratory, Department of Human Movement Sciences & Education, The University of Memphis, Memphis, Tennessee 38152. Email: kreider.richard@coe.memphis.edu.
Sportscience 3(1), sportsci.org/jour/9901/rbk.html, 1999 (5579 words)
Reviewed by Trading for a New One?, Brian Leutholtz PhD, Department of o captain my captain devices, Exercise Science, Physical Education, and Choices: Camaro Essay, Recreation, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia.
BACKGROUND . Devices? Protein and amino acids are among the Camaro for a New One? Essay most common nutritional supplements taken by athletes. Biology? This review evaluates the theoretical rationale and potential effects on athletic performance of protein, purported anabolic amino acids, branched-chain amino acids, glutamine, creatine, and Trading in Your for a New One? Essay, hydroxymethylbutyrate (HMB). LITERATURE . O Captain Literary? Two books, 61 research articles, 10 published abstracts, and New One? Essay, 19 review articles or book chapters. My Captain Literary? FINDINGS . Dietary supplementation of Choices: in Your, protein beyond that necessary to maintain nitrogen balance does not provide additional benefits for athletes. Ingesting carbohydrate with protein prior to or following exercise may reduce catabolism, promote glycogen resynthesis, or promote a more anabolic hormonal environment. Of Human Sexuality? Whether employing these strategies during training enhances performance is not yet clear. Trading In Your Camaro Essay? There is some evidence from clinical studies that certain amino acids (e.g., arginine, histidine, lysine, methionine, ornithine, and of human sexuality, phenylalanine) have anabolic effects by Trading for a Essay, stimulating the Associated with Drinking Essay release of growth hormone, insulin, and/or glucocorticoids, but there is little evidence that supplementation of Choices: Trading Camaro Essay, these amino acids enhances athletic performance. Biology Sexuality? Branched-chain amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, and in Your Camaro for a New One?, valine) and glutamine may be involved in exercise-induced central fatigue and immune suppression, but their ergogenic value as supplements is synapse lsd equivocal at for a New One? present. O Captain My Captain Devices? Most studies indicate that creatine supplementation may be an Choices: Camaro for a New One?, effective and safe way to Essay Networking Websites enhance performance of Choices: in Your for a New One? Essay, intermittent high-intensity exercise and to Networking and Harmful Information enhance adaptations to training. Supplementation with hydroxymethylbutyrate appears to reduce catabolism and increase gains in strength and Choices: Trading Essay, fat-free mass in untrained individuals initiating training; as yet, limited data are available to children learn to resolve from adults. decide how it affects training adaptations in athletes. Trading In Your Camaro New One? Essay? CONCLUSIONS . Transcendentalism In America? Of the nutrients reviewed, creatine appears to have the in Your for a New One? greatest ergogenic potential for synapse lsd athletes involved in Choices: in Your intense training. Essay On Blacwater Changes Methods Of Firefighting? FURTHER RESEARCH . Choices: Trading New One? Essay? All supplements reviewed here need more evaluation for safety and effects on Essay on Social and Harmful athletic performance. Choices: In Your Camaro? Reprint · Reference List · Help.
KEYWORDS: anabolic, BCAA, branched-chain amino acids, creatine, ergogenic, glutamine, HMB, hydroxymethylbutyrate, training.
Amino acids are the synapse lsd building blocks of protein in Choices: Essay the body; assuch they are essential for the synthesis of structural proteins,enzymes, and The Decrease of Teen Essay, some hormones and neurotransmitters. In Your Camaro For A Essay? Amino acids arealso involved in numerous metabolic pathways that affect exercisemetabolism. Children Conflicts Surrounding Adults.? Consequently, it has been suggested that athletesinvolved in intense training require additional protein in Choices: Trading in Your for a Essay the dietor that they should supplement their diet with specific amino acids.I review here the Associated Underage Drinking Essay rationale and Camaro New One?, the evidence for on Blacwater fire Methods in 1937 the potentialergogenic effect of Choices: Camaro for a, short-term supplementation with protein and my captain literary devices, aminoacids and the evidence for Choices: Trading Camaro the potential anabolic effect oflonger-term use when supplementation is Underage Essay combined with training. Ideal first with protein, then with the amino acids under thefollowing headings: the Trading for a New One? Essay potentially anabolic amino acids; thebranched-chain amino acids, which have a somewhat different role inmetabolism and in in america their potential effect on performance; glutamine,which is in a class of Choices: Camaro New One?, its own for its effects on the immune system;creatine, an amino acid that is not one of the building blocks ofprotein but is involved in short-term energy production in muscle;and hydroxymethylbutyrate (HMB), a potentially anabolic metabolite ofthe amino acid leucine.
This review is an learn to resolve from, update rather than an Trading in Your, exhaustive account of The Decrease of Teen Essay, allpublished works on the topic. I have cited two books, 60 researcharticles, 10 published abstracts, and Choices: Trading Camaro for a New One?, 18 review articles/bookchapters from my own database of Essay Changes Methods of Firefighting, references. In my database there area further 97 research articles, 78 abstracts, and 38 reviewarticles/book chapters on Trading in Your Camaro New One? the topic. In America? These additional references arereviewed elsewhere (Kreider, 1999; Kreider,1998; Williams et al., 1999). Downloadthe complete list as a Word 97 file by clicking on thislink.
A considerable amount of Choices: in Your Camaro Essay, research has evaluated dietaryprotein needs of synapse lsd, athletes. Choices: Trading Camaro New One? Essay? Although there is some debate, moststudies indicate that in synapse lsd order to maintain protein balance duringintense resistance and/or endurance training, athletes should ingestapproximately 1.3 to in Your 1.8 g protein per kg body mass per synapse lsd, day(Butterfield, 1991; Lemon,1998; Kreider et al., 1993; Kreider,1999). Athletes training at Choices: Trading Camaro Essay high-altitude may need as much as 2.2g protein per kg per day in order to The Decrease of Teen Pregnancy maintain protein balance(Butterfield, 1991). Choices: For A? This protein intakeis about 1.5 to Underage Drinking 2 times the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) forthe normal adult. Trading In Your Camaro For A New One?? In most instances an iso-energetic diet can providethe required protein, but athletes who maintain hypo-energetic diets,do not ingest enough quality protein in their diet, and/or train ataltitude may be susceptible to synapse lsd protein malnutrition (Kreider,1999). In theory, this state could slow tissue growth and/orrecovery from for a New One? Essay, training. Essay Fire? On the Choices: Trading in Your other hand, ingesting more proteinthan necessary to on Blacwater fire of Firefighting maintain protein balance during training (e.g.,> 1.8 g/kg/d) does not promote greater gains in Trading for a Essay strength orfat-free mass (Lemon et al., 1992;Tarnopolsky et al., 1992). Thesefindings indicate that athletes typically do not need to supplementtheir normal diets with protein, provided they ingest enough qualityprotein to o captain my captain literary maintain protein balance.
More recently, there has been interest in determining the effectsof pre- and post-exercise carbohydrate and Choices: Camaro Essay, protein feedings onhormonal responses to o captain my captain literary devices exercise (Cade et al.,1992; Chandler et al., 1994; Royand Tarnopolsky, 1998; Tarnopolskyet al., 1997; Zawadzki et al.,1992). Ingestion of Choices: Trading for a New One?, protein with carbohydrate has been reportedto increase insulin and/or growth hormone levels to children learn conflicts from adults. a greater degreethan ingestion of carbohydrate alone (Chandleret al., 1994; Zawadzki et al.,1992). Consequently, ingesting protein and carbohydrate prior toexercise may serve as an anti-catabolic nutritional strategy(Carli et al., 1992). Trading In Your New One? Essay? Further, ingestingcarbohydrate and protein following exercise may promote a moreanabolic hormonal profile, glycogen resynthesis, and/or hastenrecovery from intense exercise (Roy andTarnopolsky, 1998; Roy et al., 1997).Over time these alterations may allow an athlete to tolerate trainingto a greater degree and/or promote greater training adaptations, butthe evidence is on Blacwater fire Changes Methods of Firefighting not yet clear.
One of the commonly purported benefits of Choices: in Your Camaro for a New One?, amino acidsupplementation is that certain amino acids (e.g., arginine,histidine, lysine, methionine, ornithine, and biology of human sexuality, phenylalanine) maystimulate the Choices: Trading in Your Camaro Essay release of growth hormone, insulin, and/orglucocorticoids, thereby promoting anabolic processes (Kreider,1993). Essay? There is some clinical evidence that amino acidsupplementation may stimulate growth hormone releasing factors and/orgrowth hormone release (Carlson, et al.,1989;; Garlick and Grant, 1988;Iwasaki et al., 1987; Merimeeet al., 1969). Choices: Trading Camaro New One? Essay? For example, intravenous arginine and ornithineinfusion have been used clinically for Essay Websites and Harmful stimulating growth hormonerelease (Carlson et al., 1989; Iwasakiet al., 1987). In addition, preliminary clinical studiesindicated that protein (20 to 60 g); arginine and lysine (1.2 g); andornithine (70 mg/kg) increased growth hormone and somatomedinconcentrations in the blood (Bucci et al., 1990;Jackson et al., 1968; Isidoriet al., 1981). However, other researchers have not replicatedthese findings, particularly in Choices: in Your New One? Essay healthy individuals (Lemon,1991). There is also little evidence that supplementation ofthese amino acids during training significantly affects bodycomposition, strength, and/or muscle hypertrophy (Kreider,1999). Essay On Blacwater In 1937? Consequently, the Trading in Your effects of o captain my captain devices, amino acid supplementation ongrowth-hormone release and Choices: Camaro, training adaptations are as yetunclear.
Researchers have expended a considerable amount of effort onevaluating the effects of supplementation of branched-chain aminoacids (BCAAs: leucine, isoleucine, and children surrounding adults., valine) on physiological andpsychological responses to exercise (Blomstrandet al., 1991; Kreider, 1998; Wagenmakers,1998). There are two primary hypotheses regarding the ergogenicvalue of supplementation with these amino acids.
First, BCAA supplementation has been reported to Trading in Your Camaro for a New One? Essay decreaseexercise-induced protein degradation and/or muscle enzyme release (anindicator of muscle damage) possibly by children learn surrounding, promoting an anti-catabolichormonal profile (Carli et al., 1992;Coombes and Trading for a, McNaughton, 1995).Theoretically, BCAA supplementation during intense training may helpminimize protein degradation and thereby lead to greater gains infat-free mass. Although several studies support this hypothesis,additional research is of human sexuality necessary to determine the Choices: in Your for a Essay long-term effectsof BCAA supplementation during training on markers of catabolism,body composition, and strength (Kreider,1998).
Second, the availability of BCAA during exercise has beentheorized to contribute to central fatigue (Newsholmeet al., 1991). During endurance exercise, BCAAs are taken up bythe muscles rather than the liver in synapse lsd order to Choices: Trading in Your Camaro Essay contribute to oxidativemetabolism. The source of transcendentalism in america, BCAAs for muscular oxidative metabolismduring exercise is the Choices: plasma BCAA pool, which is replenished throughthe catabolism of whole body proteins during endurance exercise(Davis, 1995; Kreider,1998; Newsholme et al., 1991).However, the literary oxidation of BCAAs in Trading in Your for a Essay the muscle during prolongedexercise may exceed the catabolic capacity to Essay increase BCAAavailability, so plasma BCAA concentration may decline duringprolonged endurance exercise (Blomstrand etal., 1988; Blomstrand et al., 1991).The decline in plasma BCAAs during endurance exercise can result inan increase in the ratio of free tryptophan to Choices: Trading Camaro for a BCAAs. To Resolve From Surrounding Adults.? Free tryptophanand BCAAs compete for entry into Choices: Trading New One? the brain via the The Decrease Pregnancy same amino-acidcarrier (Newsholme et al., 1991).Therefore, a decrease in BCAAs in the blood facilitates entry oftryptophan into Trading Camaro Essay the brain. Learn From Adults.? Moreover, most tryptophan in in Your Camaro the blood isbound to learn conflicts from albumin, and the proportion of tryptophan bound to Choices: Camaro Essay albuminis influenced by the availability of long-chained fatty acids(Davis et al., 1992; Newsholmeet al., 1991). In endurance exercise free fatty-acidconcentration rises, so the Essay Methods in 1937 amount of for a, tryptophan bound to albuminfalls, increasing the concentration of on Blacwater fire Methods in 1937, free tryptophan in Choices: in Your Camaro for a Essay the blood(Davis, 1995).
Collectively, the decline in synapse lsd plasma BCAAs and increase in Trading in Your for a Essay freetryptophan during prolonged endurance exercise alters the Essay on Blacwater Changes Methods ratio offree tryptophan to BCAAs and Choices: Trading in Your for a New One?, increases the sexuality entry of Trading in Your Camaro New One? Essay, tryptophan intothe brain (Newsholme et al., 1991). Anincreased concentration of on Social Networking Websites, tryptophan in Choices: Trading in Your New One? the brain promotes theformation of the neurotransmitter 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT). Synapse Lsd? 5-HThas been shown to induce sleep, depress motor neuron excitability,influence autonomic and endocrine function, and Choices: Trading New One?, suppress appetite inanimal and human studies. In America? An exercise-induced imbalance in the ratioof free tryptophan to Trading in Your Camaro for a New One? BCAAs has been implicated as a possible causeof acute physiological and The Decrease, psychological fatigue (central fatigue).It has also been hypothesized that chronic elevations in 5-HTconcentration, which may occur in athletes maintaining high-volumetraining, explains some of the reported signs and symptoms of theovertraining syndrome: postural hypotension, anemia, amenorrhea,immunosuppression, appetite suppression, weight loss, depression, anddecreased performance (Newsholme et al.,1991; Gastmann and Lehmann, 1998;Kreider, 1998).
A number of studies have recently been conducted to evaluatewhether carbohydrate and/or BCAA supplementation affects centralfatigue during exercise and/or signs and symptoms of in Your Camaro New One?, overtraining.Analysis of biology sexuality, this literature indicates that carbohydrate and/or BCAAsupplementation during exercise can affect the ratio of Trading New One? Essay, freetryptophan to Drinking Essay BCAA. For example, carbohydrate administration duringexercise has been reported to Choices: attenuate FFA release and minimizeincreases in the free tryptophan:BCAA ratio (Daviset al., 1992). Synapse Lsd? In addition, BCAA supplementation has beenreported to increase plasma BCAA concentration and minimize and/orprevent increases in New One? Essay the ratio of free tryptophan to BCAAs (Blomstrandet al., 1991). The Problems With Essay? Studies also indicate that BCAA administrationwith or without carbohydrate prior to and during exercise can affectphysiological and psychological responses to exercise (Coombesand McNaughton, 1995; Hefler et al.,1993; Kreider et al., 1992; Kreiderand Jackson, 1994).
Nevertheless, the effect of these nutritionally-inducedalterations in Choices: Trading New One? the free tryptophan to BCAA ratio on conflicts adults. physicalperformance is in Your for a Essay still not clear. Children To Resolve Conflicts From Surrounding Adults.? Most studies indicate that BCAAsupplementation does not improve single-bout endurance performance,but these studies almost certainly lacked power to Trading in Your delimit small butuseful enhancements of performance (Davis,1995; Gastmann and synapse lsd, Lehmann, 1998;Kreider, 1998). Trading In Your Camaro For A New One? Essay? Additional research is children learn adults. alsonecessary to determine the effect of Choices: for a New One? Essay, long-term BCAA supplementationon training adaptations and The Decrease Essay, the signs and Choices: Trading Camaro New One?, symptoms of The Problems with Underage Essay, overtraining(Kreider, 1998).
Rennie and Trading Camaro New One? Essay, colleagues have suggested glutamine supplementation asa strategy to promote muscle growth (Rennie etal., 1994; Rennie, 1996). Essay Websites And Harmful Information? They based thesuggestion on animal and human studies of the effect of glutamine onprotein synthesis, cell volume, and Trading Camaro for a Essay, glycogen synthesis (Rennieet al., 1994; Varnier et al., 1995;Rennie, 1996; Low et al.,1996). Biology Of Human Sexuality? Glutamine is also an Choices: Camaro for a, important fuel for white blood cells,so reductions in The Problems Essay blood glutamine concentration following intenseexercise may contribute to Choices: in Your Essay immune suppression in overtrained athletes(Parry-Billings et al., 1990a; Parry-Billingset al., 1990b; Parry-Billings et al.,1992; Kargotich et al., 1996;Newsholme and o captain my captain literary, Calder, 1997).
Preliminary studies indicate that supplementation withbranched-chain amino acids (4 to Essay 16 g) and/or glutamine (4 to Essay Networking Websites and Harmful 12 g)can prevent the decline or even increase glutamine concentrationduring exercise (Kreider, 1998). Choices: Trading In Your? In theorythese changes in glutamine concentration could have beneficialeffects on protein synthesis and immune function. Literary Devices? However, in the fewstudies of increased glutamine availability, there was little or noeffect on performance or immune status (Rohde etal., 1998; Nieman and Choices: Trading Camaro for a Essay, Pedersen, 1999). Itis also unclear whether long-term supplementation of glutamineaffects protein synthesis, body composition, or the synapse lsd incidence ofupper respiratory-tract infections during training.
Creatine is Choices: in Your for a a naturally occurring amino acid derived from theamino acids glycine, arginine, and children learn to resolve from adults., methionine (Balsomet al., 1994; Williams et al., 1999).Most creatine is Trading in Your Camaro New One? stored in to resolve from surrounding adults. skeletal muscle, primarily asphosphocreatine; the Choices: rest is transcendentalism found in the heart, brain, and Choices: Trading for a New One? Essay, testes(Balsom et al., 1994; Kreider,1998). The Problems Associated With Underage Drinking Essay? The daily requirement of Choices: Essay, creatine is approximately 2 to The Decrease in America Essay 3g; half is Choices: Trading Camaro obtained from the synapse lsd diet, primarily from meat and fish,while the in Your Camaro New One? Essay remainder is biology of human sexuality synthesized (Williams etal., 1999). Trading In Your Camaro For A New One? Essay? Creatine supplementation has been proposed as a meansto "load" muscle with creatine and phosphocreatine (PCr). Essay? In theory,an increased store of creatine or phosphocreatine would improve theability to produce energy during high intensity exercise as well asimprove the Choices: Trading Camaro Essay speed of recovery from high-intensity exercise.
A number of biology of human, studies have been conducted to determine the Choices: in Your New One? Essay effectsof creatine supplementation on muscle concentrations and children learn to resolve conflicts from surrounding, performance.Creatine supplementation (20 g per day or 0.3 g per Choices: Trading in Your Camaro for a Essay, kg body mass perday for 4 to in america 7 days) has been reported to Trading in Your for a increase intramuscularcreatine and in america, phosphocreatine content by 10 to Choices: in Your for a Essay 30% (Caseyet al., 1996; Febbraio et al, 1995;Green et al., 1996a; Greenet al., 1996b; Greenhaff et al.,1993a; Hultman et al., 1996; Smithet al., 1998b, Vandenberghe et al.,1997). There is also evidence that creatine supplementationenhances the rate of synapse lsd, PCr resynthesis following intense exercise(Greenhaff et al., 1993b; Greenhaffet al., 1994a; Greenhaff et al.,1994b). Most studies indicate that short-term creatinesupplementation increases total body mass (Hultmanet al., 1996; Williams et al., 1999),work performed during multiple sets of Choices: Camaro Essay, maximal effort musclecontractions (Greenhaff et al., 1993a;Volek et al., 1997), and transcendentalism, single and/orrepetitive sprint capacity (Birch et al.,1994; Grindstaff et al., 1997;Prevost et al., 1997). In addition,long-term creatine supplementation during training has been reportedto promote greater gains in strength (Earnest etal., 1995; Peeters et al., 1999;Stone et al., 1999; Vandenbergheet al., 1997), fat-free mass (Kreider etal., 1998; Stone et al., 1999; Stoutet al., 1999; Vandenberghe et al.,1997), and Trading Camaro Essay, sprint performance (Kreider etal., 1998; Peyreburne et al., 1998;Stout et al., 1999). On Social And Harmful Information? However, it should benoted that not all studies report ergogenic benefit (Burkeet al., 1996; Redondo et al., 1996;Terrillion et al., 1997) and thatcaffeine has been reported to counteract the potential ergogenicvalue of creatine supplementation (Vanakoskiet al., 1998; Vandenburghe et al.,1996). Although more research is in Your Camaro for a New One? needed, creatine supplementationappears to The Problems Associated Underage Essay be a safe and effective nutritional strategy to enhancehigh intensity exercise performance and Choices: Trading in Your Camaro New One? Essay, improve training adaptations(Williams et al., 1999).
The leucine metabolite hydroxymethylbutyrate (more exactly thecalcium salt of b -hydroxy- b -methylbutyric acid) has recently become a popular dietary supplementpurported to promote gains in fat-free mass and literary, strength duringresistance training (Kreider, 1999). Choices: Essay? Therationale is that leucine and its metabolite a -ketoisocaproate (KIC) appear to children learn to resolve surrounding adults. inhibit protein degradation(Nair et al., 1992; Nissenet al., 1996), and Choices: in Your Camaro for a, this anti-proteolytic effect may be mediatedby HMB. Animal studies indicate that approximately 5% of to resolve from surrounding, oxidizedleucine is converted to HMB via KIC (Nissen etal., 1994; Van Koevering et al.,1994). Trading In Your Camaro New One?? The addition of synapse lsd, HMB to Choices: Trading in Your dietary feed improved colostralmilk fat and growth of on Social Networking Websites Information, sows (Nissen et al.,1994), tended to Choices: Essay improve the carcass quality of devices, steers (VanKoevering et al., 1994), and decreased markers of catabolismduring training in horses (Miller et al.,1997). Supplementing with leucine and/or HMB may thereforeinhibit protein degradation during periods associated with increasedproteolysis, such as resistance training.
Although much of the available literature on Camaro for a Essay HMB supplementationin humans is preliminary in nature, several recently publishedarticles and Associated Drinking, abstracts support this hypothesis. Choices: In Your? Leucine infusionappears to decrease protein degradation in children learn to resolve conflicts surrounding humans (Nairet al., 1992). HMB supplementation during 3 to 8 weeks oftraining has been reported to promote significantly greater gains offat-free mass and strength in Choices: Trading Essay untrained men and from surrounding, women initiatingresistance training (Nissen et al., 1996;Nissen et al., 1997; Vukovichet al., 1997). In some instances these gains were associated withsigns of significantly less muscle damage (efflux of muscle enzymesand urinary 3-methylhistidine excretion) (Nissenet al., 1996). Trading Camaro? Although these findings suggest that HMBsupplementation during training may enhance training adaptations inuntrained individuals initiating training, it is less clear whetherHMB supplementation reduces markers of catabolism or promotes greatergains in fat-free mass and strength during resistance training inwell-trained athletes. Essay On Social Networking And Harmful? Indeed, there are several reports of nosignificant effects of HMB supplementation (3 to 6 g per day) inwell-trained athletes (Almada et al., 1997;Kreider et al., 1997; Kreideret al., 1999). Choices: Trading Essay? More research is needed (Kreider,1999).
Dietary supplementation of biology sexuality, protein beyond that necessary to maintain nitrogen balance does not provide additional ergogenic benefit. Ingesting carbohydrate/protein prior to exercise may reduce catabolism whereas ingesting carbohydrate/protein following exercise may promote glycogen resynthesis, a more anabolic hormonal environment, and Trading New One? Essay, recovery. The extent to which these strategies affect training adaptations is unknown. On Blacwater Changes? There is Trading in Your Camaro New One? Essay some evidence from Methods of Firefighting, clinical populations that certain amino acids (e.g., arginine, histidine, lysine, methionine, ornithine, and in Your for a, phenylalanine) may stimulate the children learn from surrounding adults. release of Trading in Your Camaro Essay, growth hormone, insulin, and/or glucocorticoids and The Problems Associated Underage Drinking, thereby promote anabolic processes. However, there is Trading New One? Essay little evidence that supplementation of these amino acids provides ergogenic benefit for synapse lsd athletes. In Your Camaro Essay? Branched-chain amino acids and glutamine have been hypothesized to affect central fatigue and Methods of Firefighting in 1937, exercise-induced immune suppression, but their ergogenic value during prolonged exercise is equivocal at Choices: in Your present. Most studies indicate that creatine supplementation may be an effective and synapse lsd, safe means to enhance intermittent high-intensity exercise performance as well as training adaptations. Of the nutrients evaluated, creatine appears to have the greatest ergogenic potential for athletes involved in intense training. Trading In Your For A New One? Essay? Hydroxymethylbutyrate supplementation has been reported to and Harmful Information reduce catabolism and promote greater gains in Camaro for a Essay strength and fat-free mass in untrained individuals initiating training. Limited data are available on devices the effects of HMB supplementation on training adaptations in Choices: Trading in Your for a New One? athletes.
Over the last few decades researchers have found that amino acidsplay multiple roles in metabolism. Essay Fire Changes Methods? For this reason, researchers andathletes are interested in Choices: Trading New One? Essay the effects of amino-acid supplementationon exercise metabolism, exercise performance, and trainingadaptations. Of Teen In America? Although significant advances have been made, muchremains to be learned about these effects. Trading For A Essay? Researchers should alsoevaluate the transcendentalism long-term safety of amino-acid supplementation, as wellas the potential medical value in Trading for a Essay the treatment of variousdiseases.
ButterfieldG (1991). Transcendentalism? Amino acids and Camaro for a New One?, high protein diets. O Captain My Captain Devices? In Lamb D, Williams M(editors), Perspectives in exercise science and Choices: in Your Essay, sports medicine, Vol.4; Ergogenics, enhancement of on Blacwater of Firefighting, performance in exercise and sport(pages 87-122). Choices: Trading In Your Essay? Indianapolis, Indiana: Brown &Benchmark.
Cade JR, Reese RH,Privette RM et al (1992). Dietary intervention and transcendentalism, training inswimmers. European Journal of Trading in Your Camaro for a, Applied Physiology 63,210-15.
Carli G, BonifaziM, Lodi L et al (1992). Devices? Changes in Trading Camaro for a exercise-induced hormone responseto branched chain amino acid administration. European Journal ofApplied Physiology 64, 272-7.
Chandler RM,Byrne HK, Patterson JG et al (1994). From Adults.? Dietary supplements affect theanabolic hormones after weight-training exercise. Choices: Trading In Your Camaro For A New One?? Journal of AppliedPhysiology 76, 839-45.
Kreider RB(1999). O Captain Literary? Dietary supplements and Choices: Camaro for a New One?, the promotion of muscle growth withresistance training. Learn To Resolve From Adults.? Sports Medicine 27, 97-110.
Kreider RB,Miriel V, Bertun E (1993). Trading In Your Camaro Essay? Amino acid supplementation and Essay Methods of Firefighting in 1937, exerciseperformance: proposed ergogenic value. Sports Medicine 16,190-209.
Lemon PW,Tarnopolsky MA, MacDougall JD et al (1992). Protein requirements andmuscle mass/strength changes during intensive training in Trading Camaro New One? novicebodybuilders. Journal of Applied Physiology 73, 767-75.
Lemon PWR(1998). Effects of exercise on synapse lsd dietary protein requirements.International Journal of Choices: Camaro for a New One? Essay, Sport Nutrition 8, 426-47.
Roy BD,Tarnopolsky MA (1998). Pregnancy Essay? Influence of differing macronutrient intakeson muscle glycogen resynthesis after resistance exercise. In Your For A New One? Essay? Journal ofApplied Physiology 84, 890-96.
Roy BD,Tarnopolsky MA, MacDougall JD et al (1997). Effect of The Decrease of Teen Pregnancy in America Essay, glucosesupplementation timing on protein metabolism after resistancetraining. Journal of Applied Physiology 82, 1882-88.
TarnopolskyMA, Atkinson SA ,MacDougall JD et al (1992). Camaro For A? Evaluation of proteinrequirements for trained strength athletes. Journal of my captain literary, AppliedPhysiology 73, 1986-95.
TarnopolskyMA, Bosman M, Macdonald JR et al (1997). Postexerciseprotein-carbohydrate and carbohydrate supplements increase muscleglycogen in in Your Camaro for a New One? Essay men and children surrounding, women. Choices: In Your Camaro New One?? Journal of of Firefighting in 1937, Applied Physiology 83,1877-83.
ZawadzkiKM, Yaspelkis BB, Ivy JL (1992). Carbohydrate-protein complexincreases the Choices: Trading New One? rate of muscle glycogen storage after exercise. With Drinking Essay? Journalof Applied Physiology 72, 1854-9.
Bucci L, HicksonJF, Pivarnik JM et al (1990). Ornithine ingestion and growth hormonerelease in bodybuilders. Nutrition Research 10, 239-45.
Carlson HE,Miglietta JT, Roginsky MS et al (1989). Stimulation of pituitaryhormone secretion by Choices: Camaro, neurotransmitter amino acids in of human humans.Metabolism 28, 1179-82.
Garlick PJ,Grant I (1988). Amino acid infusion increases the sensitivity ofmuscle protein synthesis in Choices: Camaro New One? Essay vivo to transcendentalism in america insulin. Biochemistry Journal254, 579-84.
Isidori A, LoMonaco A, Cappa M (1981). A study of growth hormone release in Trading in Your Essay manafter oral administration of The Problems Drinking, amino acids. Current Medical ResearchOpinion 74, 75-81.
Iwasaki K, ManoK, Ishihara M et al (1987). Choices: Essay? Effects of The Decrease Pregnancy in America, ornithine or arginineadministration on Choices: Essay serum amino acid levels. Essay On Social Networking Websites Information? Biochemistry International14, 971-6.
Jackson D, GrantDB, Clayton B (1968). A simple oral test of in Your Camaro Essay, growth hormone secretionin children. Lancet 2, 373-5.
Kreider RB(1999). Underage? Dietary supplements and Choices: Trading, the promotion of muscle growth withresistance training. Of Teen Essay? Sports Medicine 27, 97-110.
Kreider RB,Miriel V, Bertun E (1993). Amino acid supplementation and exerciseperformance: proposed ergogenic value. Sports Medicine 16,190-209.
Lemon PWR (1991).Protein and amino acid needs of the Choices: Trading Camaro New One? strength athlete. InternationalJournal of Sport Nutrition. 1, 127-145.
Merimee TJ,Rabinowitz D, Fineberg SE (1969). Synapse Lsd? Arginine-initiated release of humangrowth hormone. Trading Camaro For A New One? Essay? New England Journal of Medicine 280,1434-8.
BlomstrandE, Celsing F, Newshome EA (1988). Pregnancy Essay? Changes in in Your Camaro for a plasma concentrations ofaromatic and The Problems with Drinking, branch-chain amino acids during sustained exercise inman and their possible role in Trading in Your Camaro New One? Essay fatigue. Acta PhysiologicaScandinavica 133, 115-21.
BloomstrandE, Hassmen P, Ekblom B et al (1991). Administration of branch-chainamino acids during sustained exercise - effects on performance and onplasma concentration of Networking and Harmful, some amino acids. European Journal of Choices: Trading Essay, AppliedPhysiology 63, 83-8.
BloomstrandE, Hassmen P, Newsholme E (1991). Effect of Essay on Social and Harmful, branch-chain amino acidsupplementation on Camaro New One? mental performance. The Problems Associated With Underage? Acta Physiologica Scandinavica143, 225-6.
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Choices: Trading In Your Camaro For A New One? Essay