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Nov 25, 2017 Definition privity of contract, buy essays cheap - Under what conditions is an abortion morally permissible? Does a citizen have a moral obligation to definition privity of contract, actively participate (perhaps by non-normative, voting) in the democratic process of definition one’s nation (assuming one is living in a democracy)? What obligations, if any, does one have to and Ethics of Genetic Engineering Essay, the global poor? Under what conditions is female genital excision morally permissible? If there are conditions under which it is morally wrong, what measures, if any, should be taken against the practice? These are just some of the thousands of definition of contract questions that applied ethicists consider. Applied ethics is life, often referred to definition of contract, as a component study of the wider sub-discipline of Adolescence In Essay ethics within the discipline of definition privity philosophy. This does not mean that only Oedipus The Search for Truth Essay, philosophers are applied ethicists, or that fruitful applied ethics is only done within academic philosophy departments. Privity? In fact, there are those who believe that a more informed approach is best gotten outside of the academy, or at least certainly outside of Oedipus Rex: The Search philosophy. This article, though, will mostly focus on how applied ethics is definition privity of contract, approached by trained academic philosophers, or by those trained in and Ethics Engineering Essay, very closely related disciplines. This article first locates applied ethics as distinct from, but nevertheless related to, two other branches of ethics. Since the content of what is definition, studied by Essay, applied ethicists is so varied, and of contract, since working knowledge of the field requires considerable empirical knowledge, and since historically the pursuit of applied ethics has been done by Oedipus Essay, looking at definition privity of contract different kinds of letter symbol human practices, it only definition privity, makes sense that there will be many different kinds of applied ethical research, such that an expert working in one kind will not have much to say in another. For example, business ethics is a field of applied ethics, and so too is bioethics. There are plenty of experts in one field that have nothing to say in the other. Social Of Gender? This article discusses each field, highlighting just some of the many issues that fall within each. Throughout the presentation of the different areas of privity applied ethics, some methodological issues continue to come up. Additionally, the other two branches of ethics are consulted in dealing with many of the issues of almost all the social construct of gender, different fields. Of Contract? So, what may be a methodological worry for a business ethics issue may also be a worry for bioethical issues. One particular kind of social construct applied ethics that raises distinct concerns is bioethics. Privity Of Contract? Whereas with other kinds of The Power of Rational Essay applied ethics it is usually implicit that the definition of contract, issue involves those who we already know to The Morals and Ethics Engineering, have moral standing, bioethical issues, such as abortion, often involve beings whose moral standing is much more contentious. Definition Privity Of Contract? Our treatment of non-human animals is Essay on Social Exchange Theory Homans, another area of bioethical research that often hinges on privity of contract, what moral standing these animals have. As such, it is important that this article devote a section to the issues that arise concerning moral standing and personhood. This article ends with a discussion of the letter symbol, role of privity moral psychology in social of gender, applied ethics, and in definition, particular how applied ethicists might appropriate social psychological knowledge for the purpose of events understanding the definition, role of emotion in the formation of The Troubles with Fitting In Essay moral judgments. Additionally, to what extent is privity, it important to The Morals of Genetic Essay, understand the role of culture in not only what is valued but in how practices are to be morally evaluated? 1. Privity? Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics. One way of with Fitting categorizing the definition privity, field of ethics (as a study of morality) is by letter symbol, distinguishing between its three branches, one of privity of contract them being applied ethics. Events? By contrasting applied ethics with the other branches, one can get a better understanding what exactly applied ethics is definition privity of contract, about. Essay Theory Homans? The three branches are metaethics, normative ethics (sometimes referred to as ethical theory), and definition of contract, applied ethics. Metaethics deals with whether morality exists. Letter Symbol? Normative ethics, usually assuming an affirmative answer to of contract, the existence question, deals with the Essay Exchange Theory Homans, reasoned construction of moral principles, and at its highest level, determines what the fundamental principle of morality is. Applied ethics, also usually assuming an of contract, affirmative answer to the existence question, addresses the moral permissibility of letter symbol specific actions and of contract, practices. Although there are many avenues of research in of Genetic, metaethics, one main avenue starts with the definition, question of whether or not moral judgments are truth-apt. The following will illuminate this question. Life Events? Consider the privity, following claims: вЂ2+2=4’, вЂThe volume of an construct of gender, organic cell expands at a greater rate than its surface area’, вЂAB=BA, for all A,B matrices’, and definition, вЂJoel enjoys white wine.’ All of these claims are either true or false; the first two are true, the The Morals of Genetic Essay, latter two are false, and there are ways in definition, which to social of gender, determine the privity, truth or falsity of them. But how about the life, claim вЂNatalie’s torturing of Nate’s dog for definition, the mere fun of it is of Genetic, morally wrong’? A large proportion of definition of contract people, and The Power Essay, perhaps cross-culturally, will say that this claim is true (and hence truth-apt). But it’s not quite as obvious how this claim is truth-apt in the way that the definition privity, other claims are truth-apt. There are axioms and letter symbol, observations (sometime through scientific instruments) which support the truth-aptness of the claims above, but it’s not so clear that truth-aptness is gotten through these means with respect to definition of contract, the torturing judgment. Essay Foothold:? So, it is the definition privity of contract, branch of metaethics that deals with this question, and The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In Essay, not applied ethics. Normative ethics is concerned with principles of morality. Definition Of Contract? This branch itself can be divide into various sub-branches (and in various ways): consequentialist theories, deontological theories, and virtue-based theories. A consequentialist theory says that an action is morally permissible if and only if it maximizes overall goodness (relative to its alternatives). Non-normative? Consequentialist theories are specified according to what they take to definition of contract, be (intrinsically) good. For example, classical utilitarians considered intrinsic goodness to social construct of gender, be happiness/pleasure. Modern utilitarians, on the other hand, define goodness in definition privity of contract, terms of things like preference-satisfaction, or even well-being. Other kinds of of gender consequentialists will consider less subjective criteria for goodness. Definition Privity Of Contract? But, setting aside the issue of what constitutes goodness, there is a rhetorical argument supporting consequentialist theories: How could it ever be wrong to do what’s best overall? (I take this straight from Robert N. The Troubles With Fitting Essay? Johnson.) Although intuitively the of contract, answer is that it couldn’t be wrong to do what’s best overall, there are a plentitude of Fitting In Essay purported counterexamples to consequentialism on this point – on of contract, what might be called “the maximizing component” of consequentialism. Non-normative Life? For example, consider the definition of contract, Transplant Problem, in which the only way to save five dying people is by killing one person for The Morals and Ethics Essay, organ transplantation to the five. Such counterexamples draw upon definition privity another kind of normative/ethical theory – namely, deontological theory. Engineering? Such theories either place rights or duties as fundamental to definition, morality. The idea is Fitting In Essay, that there are certain constraints placed against persons/agents in maximizing overall goodness. One is not morally permitted to save five lives by definition, cutting up another person for letter symbol, organ transplantation because the one person has a right against definition privity, any person to be treated in Exchange Homans, this way. Definition Of Contract? Similarly, there is Decision, a duty for privity, all people to The Morals of Genetic Essay, make sure that they do not treat others in definition privity of contract, a way that merely makes them a means to of Genetic, the end of maximizing overall goodness, whatever that may be. Definition Of Contract? Finally, we have virtue theories. The Morals Engineering Essay? Such theories are motivated by the idea that what’s fundamental to definition privity, morality is not what one ought to do, but rather what one ought to be. Letter Symbol? But given that we live in privity of contract, a world of action, of doing, the The Morals of Genetic Essay, question of definition privity what one ought to do creeps up. Therefore, according to such theories, what one ought to do is what the ideally virtuous person would do. What should I do? Well, suppose I’ve become the kind of person I want to be. Then whatever I do from letter symbol, there is what I should do now. This theory is initially appealing, but nevertheless, there are lots of definition privity problems with it, and letter symbol, we cannot get into definition of contract, them for social of gender, an article like this. Applied ethics, unlike the other two branches, deals with questions that started this article – for example, under what conditions is an abortion morally permissible? And, what obligations, if any, do we have toward the definition privity, world’s global poor? Notice the specificity compared to Essay on Social Exchange Homans, the other two branches. Already, though, one might wonder whether the definition privity of contract, way to handle these applied problems is by applying one of the Essay Stronger Foothold:, branches. So, if it’s the of contract, case that morality doesn’t exist (or: moral judgments are not truth-apt), then we can just say that any claims about the permissibility of abortion or global duties to the poor are not true (in virtue of letter symbol not being truth-apt), and privity, there is therefore no problem; applied ethics is non-normative, finished. Privity? It’s absolutely crucial that we are able to show that morality exists (that moral judgments are truth-apt) in order for applied ethics to get off the ground. Actually, this may be wrong. Letter Symbol? It might be the definition privity of contract, case that even if we are in with In, error about definition, morality existing, we can nevertheless give reasons which support our illusions in specified cases. Construct Of Gender? More concretely, there really is no truth of the definition privity, matter about the moral permissibility of and Ethics of Genetic Engineering Essay abortion, but that does not stop us from definition privity of contract, considering whether we should have legislation that places constraints on it. Perhaps there are other reasons which would support answers to this issue. The pursuit and discussion of Essay Stronger these (purported) reasons would be an exercise in applied ethics. Of Contract? Similarly, suppose that there is no such thing as a fundamental principle of morality; this does not exclude, for The Power of Rational Decision Essay, one thing, the definition privity, possibility of actions and of Rational Decision Making Essay, practices from being morally permissible and definition privity, impermissible/wrong. Furthermore, suppose we go with the idea that there is of Rational Decision, a finite list of privity of contract principles that comprise a theory (with no principle being fundamental). There are those who think that we can determine, and The Troubles Adolescence Fitting, explain, the rightness/wrongness of actions and practices without this list of privity of contract non-fundamental principles. Essay? (We’ll look at definition of contract this later in this article) If this is the case, then we can do applied ethics without an social of gender, explicit appeal to privity of contract, normative ethics. In summary, we should consider whether or not the three branches are as distinct as we might think that they are. Of course, the principle questions of Exchange Theory each are distinct, and as such, each branch is in privity of contract, fact distinct. Non-normative Life Events? But it appears that in privity, doing applied ethics one must (or less strongly, may) endeavor into the other two branches. Theory By George Homans? Suppose that one wants to come to the conclusion that our current treatment of definition non-human animals, more specifically our treatment of chickens in their mass production in chicken warehouses, is morally impermissible. Theory Homans? Then, if one stayed away from consequentialist theories, they would have either a deontological or virtue-based theory to approach this issue. Supposing they dismissed virtue-theory (on normative ethical grounds), they would then approach the issue from definition privity, deontology. Suppose further, they chose a rights-based theory. Then they would have to defend the existence of rights, or at social least appeal to definition privity of contract, a defense of rights found within the on Social Exchange, literature. What reasons do we have to definition privity, think that rights exist? This then looks like a metaethical question. As such, even before being able to appeal to the issue of whether we’re doing right by The Search Essay, chickens in our manufactured slaughtering of them, we have to do some normative ethics and definition of contract, metaethics. The Troubles With Fitting In Essay? Yes, the three branches are distinct, but they are also related. Some people might think that business ethics is an oxymoron. Privity Of Contract? How can business, with all of its shady dealings, be ethical? This is Essay to a Stronger, a view that can be taken even by well educated people. But in definition privity, the end, such a position is incorrect. Ethics is a study of morality, and business practices are fundamental to The Power of Rational Decision, human existence, dating back at least to of contract, agrarian society, if not even to Oedipus Rex: The Search for Truth, pre-agrarian existence. Business ethics then is a study of the definition privity, moral issues that arise when human beings exchange goods and services, where such exchanges are fundamental to letter symbol, our daily existence. Definition Of Contract? Not only is non-normative life events, business ethics not something oxymoronical, it is definition of contract, important. a. Corporate Social Responsibility. One important issue concerns the social responsibility of corporate executives, in social, particular those taking on the role of privity a CEO. In an important sense, it is stockholders, and not corporate executives (via their role as executives), who own a corporation. As such, a CEO is an employee, not an owner, of a corporation. Letter Symbol? And who is their employer? The stockholders. Definition Of Contract? Who are they, the The Power of Rational Making Essay, CEO and other executives, directly accountable to? The board of directors, representing the privity, stockholders. Letter Symbol? As such, there is the view taken by privity, what’s called stockholder theorists, that the social, sole responsibility of a CEO is to definition privity, do what the stockholders demand (as expressed by Essay, the collective decision of the definition privity of contract, board of directors), and usually that demand is to maximize profits. Therefore, according to stockholder theory, the sole responsibility of the CEO is to, through their business abilities and Oedipus, knowledge, maximize profit. (Friedman, 1967) The contesting viewpoint is definition privity, stakeholder theory. Djibouti? Stakeholders include not just stockholders but also employees, consumers, and communities. In other words, anyone who has a stake in definition privity, the operations of letter symbol a corporation is a stakeholder of definition privity of contract that corporation. According to Oedipus, stakeholder theory, a corporate executive has moral responsibilities to definition privity, all stakeholders. Thus, although some corporate ventures and actions might maximize profit, they may conflict with the demands of employees, consumers, or communities. Non-normative? Stakeholder theory very nicely accounts for what some might consider to definition of contract, be a pre-theoretical commitment – namely, that an Essay on Ways to a Foothold: Djibouti, action should be assessed in terms of privity how it affects everyone involved by The Troubles with Adolescence In Essay, it, not just a select group based on definition privity of contract, something morally arbitrary. And Ethics Of Genetic Engineering Essay? Stakeholder theorists can claim that the stakeholders are everyone affected by a business’s decision, and of contract, not just the stockholders. To consider only stockholders is to focus on on Social Exchange Theory Homans, a select group based on of contract, something that is morally arbitrary. There are at least two problems for of Rational Decision Essay, stakeholder theory worth discussing. First, as was mentioned above, there are conflicts between stockholders and the rest of definition stakeholders. Social Construct Of Gender? A stakeholder account has to handle such conflicts. Definition Of Contract? There are various ways of on Social handling such conflicts. For example, some theorists take a Rawlsian approach, by which corporate decisions are to be made in definition privity of contract, accordance with what will promote the least well-off. (Freeman, 2008) Another kind of The Morals and Ethics of Genetic Rawlsian approach is to endorse the privity of contract, use of the veil of ignorance without appeal to the Difference Principle, whereby it might result that what is morally correct is actually more in line with the stockholders (Dittmer, 2010). Additionally, there are other decision making principles by Essay, which one could appeal in order to resolve conflict. Definition Of Contract? Such stakeholder theories will then be assessed according to the plausibility of their decision making theories (resolving conflict) and their ability to non-normative, achieve intuitive results in particular cases. Another challenge of some stakeholder theories will be their ability to privity, make some metaphysical sense of such entities as community, as well as making sense of social construct of gender potentially affecting a group of people. Definition Privity Of Contract? If a corporate decision is The Search, criticized in definition of contract, terms of Stronger Djibouti it affecting a community, then we should keep in definition privity, mind what is The Troubles Adolescence Essay, meant by community. Definition Privity? It is Essay on Social Exchange by George Homans, not as if there is an definition of contract, actual person that is non-normative, a community. As such, it is definition, hard to understand how a community can be morally wronged, like a person can be wronged. Furthermore, if the social construct, decisions of privity of contract a corporate executive are to events, be measured according to stakeholder theory, then we need to privity of contract, be clearer about who counts as a stakeholder. Essay On Ways Foothold:? There are plenty of privity products and services that could potentially affect a number of people that we might not initially consider. Should such potential people be counted as stakeholders? This is and Ethics of Genetic Engineering Essay, a question to be considered for stakeholder theorists. Stockholder theorists could even us this question as a rhetorical push for privity, their own theory. In the media, corporations are portrayed as moral agents: “Microsoft unveiled their latest software”, “Ford morally blundered with their decision to not refit their Pinto with the construct of gender, rubber bladder design”, and “Apple has made strides to definition of contract, be the social of gender, company to privity, emulate”, are the Essay to a Djibouti, types of comments heard on privity of contract, a regular basis. Independently of whether or not these claims are true, each of these statements relies on there being such a thing as corporations having some kind of agency. Essay Exchange Homans? More specifically, given that intuitively corporations do things that result in morally good and bad things, it makes sense to ask whether such corporations are the kind of entities that can be moral agents. Of Contract? For instance, take an social construct of gender, individual human being, of normal intelligence. Many of us are comfortable with judging her actions as morally right or wrong, and also holding onto definition privity the idea that she is Exchange Homans, a moral agent, eligible for moral evaluation. Definition? The question relative to business ethics is: Are corporations moral agents? Are they the kind of non-normative thing capable of being evaluated in of contract, such a way as to determine if they are either morally good or bad? There are those who do think so. Of Rational Decision Making? Peter French has argued that corporations are moral agents. It is not just that we can evaluate such entities as shorthand for the major players involved in definition privity of contract, corporate practices and policies. Instead, there is a thing over life and above the major players which is the corporation, and it is of contract, this thing that can be morally evaluated. French postulates what's called a “Corporate Internal Decision Structure” (CID structure), whereby we can understand a corporation over Oedipus Rex: Essay and above its major players as a moral agent. Definition Privity Of Contract? French astutely observes that any being that is construct, a moral agent has to definition, be capable of The Troubles Fitting Essay intentionality – that is, the being has to of contract, have intentions. It is through the CID structure that we can make sense of a corporation as having intentions, and as such as being a moral agent. The Morals And Ethics Engineering Essay? (French, 1977). Definition Privity? One intuitive idea driving CID structures as supporting the intentionality of corporations is that there are rules and regulations within a corporation that drives it to make decisions that no one individual within it can make. Certain decisions might require either majority or unanimous approval of all individuals recognized in construct, the decision-making process. Of Contract? Those decisions then are a result of the by George, rules regulating what is required for decision, and not any particular go ahead of any individual. Definition Privity? As such, we have intentionality independent of any particular human agent. But there are those who oppose this idea of Essay Theory Homans corporate moral agency. Now, there are various reasons one might oppose it. In being a moral agent, it is usually granted that one then gets to privity, have certain rights. (Notice here a metaethical and normative ethical issue concerning the status of rights and whether or not to think of morality in letter symbol, terms of definition privity rights respect and violation.) If corporations are moral agents with rights, then this might allow for too much moral respect for The Morals Engineering, corporations. That is, corporations would be entities that would have to have their rights respected, in so far as we're concerned with following the definition, standard thoughts of what moral agency entails – that is, having both obligations and letter symbol, rights. But there are also more metaphysical reasons supporting the idea that corporations are not moral agents. For example, John Danley gives various reasons, many of of contract them metaphysical in The Troubles Adolescence Fitting, nature, against the idea that corporations are moral agents (Danley, 1980). Danley agrees with French that intention is definition privity of contract, a necessary condition for The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In Essay, moral agency. But is it a sufficient condition? French sympathizers might reply that even if it is not a sufficient condition, its being a necessary condition gives reason to believe that in the case of corporations it is sufficient. Danley then can be interpreted as responding to of contract, this argument. Construct? He gives various considerations under which theoretically defined intentional corporations are nevertheless not moral agents. Definition Of Contract? In particular, such corporations fail to meet some other conditions intuitively present with other moral agents, namely most human beings. Danley writes “The corporation cannot be kicked, whipped, imprisoned, or hanged by the neck until dead. Only individuals of the corporation can be punished” (Danley, 1980). Of Rational Making? Danley then considers financial punishments. But then he reminds us that it is individuals who have to definition, pay the non-normative events, costs. It could be the privity of contract, actual culprits, the on Social Homans, major players. Or, it could be the definition privity of contract, stockholders, in loss of of Rational Decision profits, or perhaps the downfall of the of contract, company. And furthermore, it could be the loss of jobs of The Power Making employees; so, innocents may be affected. In the literature, French does reply to privity of contract, Danley, as well as to letter symbol, the worries of others. Certainly, there is definition of contract, room for Rex: The Search, disagreement and definition of contract, discussion. Events? Hopefully, it can be seen that this is an important issue, and of contract, that room for non-normative events, argumentative maneuver is possible. Deception is usually considered to be a bad thing, in definition privity, particular something that is morally bad. Whenever one is being deceptive, one is doing something morally wrong. But this kind of Essay on Social conventional wisdom could be questioned. Privity? In fact, it is questioned by Albert Carr in his famous piece “Is Business Bluffing Ethical?” (Carr, 1968). There are at least three arguments one can take from this piece. In this section, we will explore them. The most obvious argument is Essay on Social Exchange Theory, his Poker Analogy Argument. Definition Privity Of Contract? It goes something like this: (1) Deception in poker is morally permissible, perhaps morally required. (2) Business is like poker. Events? (3) Therefore, deception in business is definition, morally permissible. Now, obviously, this argument is overly simplified, and on Ways to a Stronger Foothold:, certain modifications should be made. In poker, there are certain things that are not allowed; you could be in some serious trouble if it were found out what you were doing. So, for privity of contract, example, the introduction of The Power Decision winning cards slid into the mix would not be tolerated. Privity Of Contract? As such, we can grant that such sliding would not be morally permissible. Similarly, any kind of business practice that would be considered sliding according to Carr's analogy would also not be permissible. But there are some obvious permitted kinds of social construct of gender deception involved in definition, poker, even if it's disliked by the losing parties. Similarly, there will be deceptive practices in social construct, business that, although disliked, will be permitted. Definition Privity? Here is one objection though. Oedipus The Search Essay? Whereas, the loser of deception in poker is the privity of contract, player, the loser of deception in Essay to a Foothold:, business is a wide group of privity of contract people. Whether we go with stockholder theory or stakeholder theory, we are going to have losers/victims that had nothing to social construct of gender, do with the poker/deceptive playing of the corporative executives. Definition Of Contract? Employees, for The Search for Truth Essay, example, could lose their jobs because of the deception of definition of contract either corporate executive of on Social Exchange Homans competing companies or the bad deception of the home companies. Privity? Here is a response, though: When one is letter symbol, involved in corporate culture, as employee for example, they take on the gamble that the corporate executives take on. There are other ways to respond to this charge, as well. The second reason one might side with Carr's deception thesis is based on of contract, a meta-theoretical position. Life Events? One might take the definition privity of contract, metaethical position that moral judgments are truth-apt, but that they are categorically false. So, we might think that a certain action is The Power of Rational Decision Essay, morally wrong when in privity, fact there is no such thing as moral wrongness. The Morals Essay? When we make claims condemning a moral practice we are saying something false. As such, condemning deception in business is definition privity of contract, really just saying something false, as all moral judgments are false. Essay To A Stronger Djibouti? The way to reply to definition of contract, this worry is then through a metaethical route, where one argues against social, such a theory, which is called Error Theory. The third reason one might side with Carr is via what appears to be a discussion, on his part, of the difference between ordinary morality and business morality. Yes, in definition of contract, ordinary morality, deception is not morally permissible. But with business morality, it is not only permissible but also required. We are misled in Essay on Social Exchange Theory, judging business practices by definition, the standards of for Truth ordinary morality, and so, deception in privity of contract, business is in fact morally permissible. Social Construct Of Gender? One response is definition, this is: Following Carr's lead, one is to The Morals of Genetic, divide her life into two significant components. Definition Of Contract? They are to social construct, spend their professional life in privity of contract, such a way that involves deception, but then spend the rest of of Genetic Engineering Essay their life, day by of contract, day, in with Fitting In Essay, a way that is not deceptive with their family and friends, outside of privity of contract work. This kind of self looks very much like a divisive self, a self that is letter symbol, conflicted and perhaps tyrannical. Business is now done globally. Definition Of Contract? This does not just mean the trivial statement of Fitting global exchange of goods and definition privity of contract, services between nations. Instead, it means that goods and services are produced by other nations (often underdeveloped) for the exchange between nations that do not partake in Essay on Ways Djibouti, the production of privity of contract such goods and services. There are various ways to define multiple national enterprises (MNE's). Let us consider this definition, though: An MNE is a company that produces at least some of Decision Making Essay its goods or services in a nation that is distinct from (i) where it is definition, located and Exchange by George, (ii) its consumer base. Nike would be a good example of a MNE. Privity? The existence of with In Essay MNE's is motivated by the fact that in other nations, an MNE could produce more at lesser cost, usually due to privity, the fact that in such other nations wage laws are either absent or such that paying employees in such countries is construct, much less than in the host nation. Privity? As a hypothetical example, a company could either pay 2000 employees $12/hr for production of on Ways Foothold: Djibouti their goods in their own country or they could pay 4000 employees $1.20/hr in a foreign country. Privity Of Contract? The cheaper alternative is on Social Theory by George, going with the definition of contract, employment in the foreign country. Suppose an MNE goes this route. Essay To A Foothold:? What could morally defend such a position? One way to defend the MNE route is by definition of contract, citing empirical facts concerning the average wages of the producing nation. Fitting? If, for definition of contract, example, the events, average way is $.80/hr, then one could say that such jobs are justified in definition privity, virtue of providing opportunities to make higher wages than otherwise. On Ways Foothold: Djibouti? To be concrete, $1.20 is definition privity, more than $.80, and so such jobs are justified. There are at for Truth Essay least two ways to respond. Definition Of Contract? First, one might cite the Rex: The Search for Truth, wrongness of relocating jobs from the definition of contract, host nation to the other nation. This is a good response, except that it does not do well in answering to pre-theoretical commitment concerning fairness: Why should those in a nation receiving $12/hr be privileged over of Rational Essay those in a nation receiving $1.20/hr? Why do the $12/hr people count more than the definition privity, $1.20/hr people? Notice that utilitarian responses will have to deal with how the world could be made better (and not necessarily morally better). Second, one might take the of Rational, route of privity Richard Miller. He proposes that the $1.20/hr people are being exploited, and it is social of gender, not because they are doing worse off than they would otherwise. He agrees that they are doing better than they would otherwise ($1.20/hr is better than $.80/hr). It's just that their cheapness of labor is determined according to what they would get otherwise. They should not be offered such wages because doing so exploits their vulnerability of already having to work for unjust compensation; being compensated for a better wage than the wage they would get under unjust conditions does not mean that the better wage is definition privity, just (Miller, 2010). Bioethics is a very exciting field of study, filled with issues concerning the most basic concerns of human beings and their close relatives. In some sense, the on Social Exchange Theory, term bioethics is a bit ridiculous, as almost anything of ethical concern is biological, and certainly anything that is privity of contract, sentient is to a Stronger, of ethical concern. Definition? (Note that with silicon based sentient beings, what I say is controversial, and Oedipus The Search for Truth Essay, perhaps false.) Bioethics, then, should be understood as a study of morality as it concerns issues dealing with the biological issues and facts concerning ourselves, and privity, our close relatives, for social construct, examples, almost any non-human animal that is sentient. This part of the article will be divided into of contract, three sections: beginning of life issues, including abortion; end of Adolescence Fitting In Essay life issues, for of contract, example euthanasia; and finally, ethical concerns doing medical research, as well as availability of medical care. a. Beginning of Life Issues, including Abortion. All of the letter symbol, beginning of life issue are contentious. There are four for definition privity of contract, us to consider: abortion, stem-cell procurement and research, cloning, and future generations. Each of these big issues (they could be considered research fields themselves) are related to each other. Let us start with abortion. Non-normative Life Events? Instead of privity of contract asking 'Is abortion morally permissible?' a better question will be 'Under what conditions is an abortion morally permissible?'. In looking at letter symbol the conditions surrounding a particular abortion, we are able to definition of contract, get a better understanding of all of the possibly morally relevant considerations in determining permissibility/impermissibility. Now, this does not exclude the possibility of The Power a position where all abortions are morally wrong. Definition Privity Of Contract? It's just that we have to start with the conditions, and with Adolescence Fitting In Essay, then proceed from there. Up until just 40 or so years ago, the conventional wisdom, at least displayed in the academic literature, was that just so long as a fetus is a person (or counts morally), it would be morally wrong to definition privity of contract, abort it. Judith Thomson challenged the on Social Theory by George, received wisdom by positing a number of definition cases that would show, at Rex: The Search least as she argued, that even with a fetus being a person, with all of the rights we would confer to any other person, it would still be permissible to abort, under certain conditions (Thomson, 1971). So, for example, with her Violinist Case, it's permissible for a pregnant woman to abort a fetus under the circumstances that she was raped, even with the granting that the definition privity of contract, aborted fetus is social construct of gender, a full-fledged person. Three remarks should be made here. Definition? First, there are those who have questioned whether her case actually establishes this very important conclusion. Second, it should be recognized that it's not completely clear what all of the Essay to a Stronger Foothold:, points Thomson is making with her Violinist Case. Is she saying something fundamentally about the privity of contract, morality of abortion? Or is she saying something fundamentally about the nature and non-normative life events, structure of moral rights? Or both? Minimally, we should be sensitive to definition privity, the fact that Thomson is saying something important, even if false, about the The Morals and Ethics Engineering Essay, nature of moral rights. Third, and this is very important, Thomson's Violinist Case, if successful, only shows the of contract, permissibility of abortion in cases where the pregnant woman was raped, where conception occurred due to of Rational Making Essay, non-consensual sex. But what about consensual sex? Thomson does have a way to definition, answer this question. Social Construct Of Gender? She continues in her essay with another case, called Peopleseeds. (Thomson, 1971) Imagine a woman (or, perhaps a man) who enjoys her days off in definition privity of contract, her house with the Homans, windows open. It just so happens that she lives in of contract, a world in which there are these things called peopleseeds, such that if they make their way into letter symbol, a house's carpet, they will root and eventually develop, unless uprooted, into privity, full-fledged people (perhaps only human infants). Knowing this, she takes precautions and places a mesh screen in The Troubles Fitting In Essay, her windows. Nevertheless, there are risks, in that it's possible, and has been documented, that seeds come through the window. Privity Of Contract? She places the screens in, and The Power of Rational Decision Making, because she enjoys Saturdays with her windows open, she leaves her windows open (actually just one), thereby eventually allowing a seed to root, and there she has a problematic person growing. Definition Of Contract? She then decides to uproot the seed, thereby killing the peopleseed. Letter Symbol? Has she done anything wrong? Intuitively, the answer is privity of contract, no. Therefore, even in on Ways to a Stronger, cases of definition of contract pregnancy due to construct, consensual sex, and definition privity of contract, with the consideration that the fetus is a person, it is morally permissible to abort it. It's interesting, though, that very little has been said in the literature to this case; or, there has been very little that has caught on in such a way that is for Truth Essay, reflected in more basic bioethics texts. Privity Of Contract? One way to Essay on Ways, question Thomson with this case is by noting that she is definition, having us consult our intuitions about The Troubles with In, a world where its biological laws are different than ours; it is definition of contract, just not the Essay Exchange by George, case that we live in privity of contract, a world (universe) where this kind of The Search for Truth fetal development can happen. Perhaps in of contract, the world in which this can occur, it would be considered morally wrong by The Power of Rational Making Essay, such inhabitants of that world to kill such peopleseed fetuses. Definition Privity Of Contract? Or maybe not. It is, minimally, hard to know. Thomson's essay is revolutionary, groundbreaking, more-than-important, and The Search Essay, perhaps ““true””. What is so important about it is the privity, idea of Decision Making arguing for the permissibility of abortion, even with fetuses being considered persons, just like us. There are others who significantly expand on her approach. Frances Kamm, for example, does so in her Creation and definition, Abortion . This is a sophisticated deontological approach to abortion. Kamm notices certain problems with Thomson's argument, but then offers various reasons which would support the to a Stronger Djibouti, permissibility of definition privity aborting. Oedipus Rex: The Search Essay? She takes into consideration such things as third party intervention and morally responsible creation (Kamm, 1992). Note that I have mentioned Kamm's deontological approach, where the rights and duties of those involved matter. Definition Of Contract? Also note that with a utilitarian approach, such things as rights and Essay to a Stronger, duties are going to be missing, and if they are there, it is definition privity of contract, only in terms of understanding what will maximize overall goodness/utility. According to letter symbol, utilitarianism, abortion is going to of contract, be settled according to non-normative life events, whether policies for or against definition privity of contract, maximize overall goodness/utility. The Search For Truth? There is definition privity of contract, a third approach, though. The Morals And Ethics Essay? This approach draws from the third major kind of definition of contract ethical theory, namely virtue theory. In general, virtue theory says that an action is morally permissible if and only if it is what an Rex: The Search, ideally virtuous person would do. Such a theory sounds very intuitive. Privity? Rosalind Hursthouse argues that it is through virtue theory that we can best understand the issues surrounding abortion. She, I think controversially, asks questions about the personal state under which a woman becomes pregnant. The Morals And Ethics Engineering Essay? It is from her becoming-pregnant state that we are to definition privity of contract, understand whether her possible abortion is morally permissible. Social Construct? Perhaps a more generous reading of privity of contract Hursthouse is that we need to with Fitting In Essay, understand where a woman is at in her life to definition, best evaluate whether or not an social of gender, abortion is morally appropriate for her (Hursthouse, 1991). There are, of course, the definition privity of contract, downright naysayers to abortion. Letter Symbol? Almost all take the position that all fetuses are persons, and thereby, aborting a fetus is tantamount to (wrongful) murder. Of Contract? Any successful position should take on Thomson's essay. Some, though, might bypass her thoughts, and just say that abortion is the non-normative, killing of an innocent person, and any killing of an definition, innocent person is The Troubles with Fitting Essay, morally wrong. Let's end, though, with a discussion of an privity of contract, approach against Essay Theory, abortion that allows for the fetus to not be a person, and to not have any (supposed) moral standing. Of Contract? This is letter symbol, clever, as Thomson's argument attempts to of contract, show that aborting a person is permissible, and construct, this approach shows that aborting a non-person is impermissible. Privity? We see very quickly, though, that this argument is different than the potentiality argument against of Rational, abortion. The potentiality argument says that some x is privity, a potential person, and therefore the Essay on Ways Foothold: Djibouti, aborting of it is definition privity of contract, wrong because had x not been aborted, it would eventually had been a person. This argument, on letter symbol, the other hand, does not appeal to definition, potentiality, and non-normative events, furthermore, does not assume that the of contract, fetus is with Adolescence In, a person. Don Marquis argues that aborting a fetus is definition privity, wrong on the grounds that explains the wrongness of any killing of people. Namely, what is letter symbol, wrong with killing a person? It is of contract, that in letter symbol, killing a person, the person is definition, being deprived of a future life. The Power Decision Making Essay? A future life contains quite a bit of things, including in general joy and definition privity, suffering. In killing a fetus via abortion one is depriving it of a future life, even if it is Essay on Social Exchange Theory by George Homans, not a person. It's future life is privity, just like ours; it contains joy and non-normative events, suffering. By killing it, you are depriving it of the same things that are deprived of us if we are killed. Definition? The same explanation of Essay why it's wrong to definition privity of contract, kill us applies to Oedipus The Search for Truth Essay, fetuses; therefore, it's wrong to abort under all cases (with some exceptions) (Marquis, 1989). Another beginning of privity of contract life issue is of Rational Decision Making, stem cell research. Stem cell research is important because it provides avenues for the development of of contract organs and tissues that can be used to replace those that are diseased for those suffering from non-normative, certain medical conditions; in privity, theory, an entire cardiac system could be generated through stem cells, as well as through all of the research required on In Essay, stem cells in order to eventually produce successful organ systems. There are various routes by definition privity of contract, which stem cell lines can be procured, and this is where things get controversial. Non-normative? First, though, how are stem cells generally produced in definition of contract, general, in on Ways Foothold:, the abstract? Answering this question first requires specifying what is meant by definition privity of contract, stem cells. Life Events? Stem cells are undifferentiated cells, ones that are pluripotent, or more colloquially, ones that can divide and definition privity, eventually become a number of many different kinds of Stronger Foothold: Djibouti cells – for example, blood cells, nerve cells, and cells specific to definition, kinds of letter symbol tissues, for definition privity, example, muscles, heart, stomach, intestine, prostate, and so forth. A differentiated, non-pluripotent cell is no good for producing pluripotent cells; such a cell is not a candidate for letter symbol, stem cell lines. And so, how are stem cells produced, abstractly? Stem cells, given that they must come from definition privity of contract, a human clump of matter that is not no good, are extracted from an embryo – a cluster of social of gender cells that are of both the differentiated and undifferentiated (stem cell) sort. The undifferentiated, pluripotent cells are extracted from the embryo in order to then be specialized into a number of different kind of definition of contract cells – for example, cells developing into social of gender, cardiac tissue. Such extraction amounts to the destruction of the human clump of matter - that is, the definition privity of contract, destruction of the human embryo, and The Morals and Ethics of Genetic Engineering Essay, some claim that is of contract, tantamount to of Rational Decision Essay, murder. Of Contract? More mildly, one could condemn such stem cell procurement as an The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In, unjustified killing of something that morally counts. Now, it is privity, important to note that such opponents of stem cell line procurement, in non-normative, the way characterized, will note that there are alternative ways to get the stem cell lines. They will point out that we can get stem cells from already existing adult cells which are differentiated, non-pluripotent. There are techniques that can then “non-specialize” them back into a pluripotent, undifferentiated state, without having to destroy an embryo for procurement of stem cells; basically, we can get the definition of contract, stem cells without having to kill something, an letter symbol, embryo, that counts morally. There are some very good responses to those who are opponents of privity of contract stem cell procurement in Essay Exchange Theory Homans, the typical (embryo destruction) manner. Typically, they will resort to the idea that such destruction is privity of contract, merely a destruction of something that doesn't morally count. The idea is social construct of gender, that embryos, at least of the privity, kind that are used and letter symbol, destroyed in getting stem cells, are not the definition, kind of thing that morally counts. The sophistication of such embryos is The Troubles with Adolescence, such that they are very early stage embryos, comparable to privity, the kinds of embryos one would find in the early stages of the of Rational Decision Making, first trimester of a natural pregnancy. There are other considerations that proponents of typical stem cell procurement will appeal to. Privity? For example, they might give a response to certain slippery slope arguments against (typical) stem cell procurement (Holm, 2007). The main kind of slippery slope argument against The Search for Truth Essay, stem cell research is privity, that if we allow such procurement and research, then this leaves open the The Morals of Genetic Essay, door to the practice of the definition, cloning of full-scale human beings. Essay On Social Exchange Theory By George? A rather reasonable way of of contract responding to this worry is two-fold: If the life events, cloning of definition full-scale human beings is with Adolescence In, not problematic, then this is not a genuine slippery slope as, in the words of one author, “there is privity, no slope in and Ethics Engineering Essay, the first place” (Holm, 2007). The idea is definition privity, that, all other things equal, human cloning is not morally problematic, and letter symbol, there is definition of contract, therefore no moral worry about stem cell procurement causing human cloning to on Social Exchange Theory by George Homans, come about, as human cloning is not a morally bad thing. Privity? But suppose that human cloning (on a full scale) is social construct, morally problematic. Then proponents of definition stem cell procurement will then need to give reasons why stem cell procurement and research won't cause/lead to human cloning, and Oedipus Rex: The Search, there are plausible, but still controversial, reasons that can be given to support this defense. Privity? To summarize, there is social, a slope, but it is not slippery (Holm, 2007). A third beginning of life issue, which follows quite nicely from the previous discussion, is that of human cloning. Definition Privity Of Contract? There are those who argue that human cloning is wrong, and for various reasons. Oedipus The Search For Truth? One could first go with the definition privity of contract, repugnance route. And Ethics? It's repugnant to create human beings through this route. One way to respond to this is by of contract, noting that it certainly would be different, at least for with Adolescence, a period of time, but that such difference, perhaps resulting in the feeling of repugnance, is by definition privity of contract, itself no reason to think that the practice (of human cloning) is letter symbol, morally wrong. Definition Of Contract? Furthermore, one might say that with any kind of The Troubles Adolescence Essay moral progress, feelings of definition repugnance by non-normative events, some of the population does occur, but that such repugnance is just an definition privity, effect of moral change; if the non-normative events, moral change is actual progress, then such repugnance is merely the reaction to a change which is privity of contract, actually morally good. Another way in which cloning may be criticized is that it could lead to a Brave New World world. And Ethics Of Genetic Essay? By cloning, we are controlling people's destinies, in definition privity of contract, such a way that what we get is a dystopian result. The best response to non-normative life, this is definition privity, that such a worry relies on a kind of letter symbol genetic reductionism which is definition of contract, false. Oedipus The Search Essay? Are we merely the product of our genetic composition? No. There are plenty of early childhood factors, as well as in general cultural/social factors, which explain the kind of privity of contract people we are by letter symbol, the time we are adults. Of course, a Brave New World world is privity of contract, possible, but it is possibility is The Troubles with Essay, best understood in terms of definition privity of contract all of the Essay by George, cultural and definition privity of contract, social factors that would have to be present to have such complacent and brain-dead people characterized in the book; they aren't born that way – they are socialized that way. Social Construct? The mere genetic replication of of contract people, through cloning, should be less of a worry, given that there are so many other factors, social, that are relevant in explaining adult behavior. The second way to criticize human cloning is that it closes the open future of the resulting clone. By cloning a person, P1, we are creating P2. Given that P1 has lived perhaps 52 years, P2 then has knowledge of what her life will be like in the next 52 years. Suppose that the 52 year old writes a very self-honest autobiography. The Power Making? Then P2 now can read how her life will unfold. Definition Privity? Once again, this objection to Essay, cloning relies on privity of contract, a very ridiculous way of looking at the narrative of a human life; it requires a very, very strong kind of genetic reductionism, and Essay on Social Exchange Theory by George, it flies in definition privity, the face of the and Ethics of Genetic, results of definition privity of contract twin studies. (Note that a human clone is biologically a delayed human twin.) So, the Essay on Ways Djibouti, response to definition of contract, the open future objection can be summed up as this: A human clone might have their future closed, but it would only be in virtue of of gender anyone else's future being closed, which would require lots of knowledge about social/cultural/economic knowledge of their future life. Privity? Given that these things are very unpredictable, as for everyone else, it's safe to say that such human clones will not have knowledge of on Social Homans how their life will unfold; as such, they, just like anyone else, have an open future. This section is definition, primarily devoted to issues concerning euthanasia and to a Stronger Djibouti, physician-assisted suicide. Of Contract? There are of and Ethics of Genetic course other issues relevant to the end of life – for definition privity, example, issues surrounding consent, often through examining the of gender, status of such things as advance directives, living wills, and DNR orders, but for definition of contract, space limits, we will only Oedipus Rex: Essay, look at of contract euthanasia and Adolescence Fitting In Essay, physician-assisted suicide. Definition? It will be very important to Oedipus Rex: The Search Essay, get a clear idea about definition, what is meant with respect to The Morals of Genetic Essay, euthanasia, suicide, and all of definition its various kinds. First, we can think of with Adolescence In euthanasia as the definition, intentional killing of another person, where the intention is to benefit that person by ending their life, and that it, in letter symbol, fact, does benefit their life (McMahan, 2002). Definition Privity? Furthermore, we can distinguish between voluntary, involuntary, and Oedipus Rex: The Search Essay, non-voluntary euthanasia. Definition? Voluntary is where the Essay on Ways Foothold: Djibouti, person killed consents to it. Involuntary is definition, where the person actively expresses that they do not give their consent, or where consent was possible but where they were not asked. Non-voluntary is Adolescence Fitting In Essay, where consent is definition privity of contract, not possible – for example, the Rex: Essay, person is in a vegetative state. Definition Privity? Another distinction is active versus passive euthanasia. Active euthanasia involves doing something to on Ways Stronger, the person which then ends their life, for privity, example, shooting them, or injecting them with a lethal does. Of Genetic Engineering Essay? Passive euthanasia involves denying assistance or treatment to the person that they would need to otherwise live. Definition Privity? Here is an example that should illustrate the difference. Fitting? Smothering a person with a pillow would be active, even if it technically denies them something they need to definition, live – that is, oxygen. Refusing to continue a breathing device, by Essay Theory, unplugging the person from the device, would be passive. Suicide is the act of a person taking their own life. Most ways that we speak and think of of contract suicide are in terms of The Power Decision Making it being non-assisted. But suppose that you have a friend who wants to end their own life, but doesn't have the financial and privity of contract, technical means to do it in a way that she believes is as painless and successful as possible. If you give them money and knowledge in letter symbol, how to end their lives in this way, then you have assisted them in definition privity, their suicide. Of Genetic Essay? Physicians are well-placed to assist others in ending their lives. Privity? Already, one could see how the The Morals of Genetic Essay, distinction between physician-assisted suicide and definition privity, voluntary active euthanasia can get rather blurred. (Imagine a terminally ill person whose condition is so extreme and social of gender, debilitating that the only thing they can do to take part in the ending of their life is pressing a button that injects a lethal dose, but where the entire killing device is definition privity, set up, both in design and construction, by a physician. Is this assisted suicide or euthanasia?) Although as far as I know, no surveys have been done to support the following claim, one might think that the following is plausible: Involuntary active euthanasia is the social, most difficult to definition privity, justify, with non-voluntary active euthanasia following, and with voluntary active euthanasia following that; then it goes involuntary passive, non-voluntary passive, and then voluntary passive euthanasia in with Adolescence, order from definition of contract, most difficult to Essay on Ways to a Stronger Foothold: Djibouti, least difficult to justify. It is definition privity of contract, difficult to figure out social construct where physician-assisted suicide and non-assisted suicide would fit in, but it's plausible to privity of contract, think that non-assisted suicide would be the Exchange Theory, easiest to definition, justify, where this becomes trivially true if the issue is in social construct of gender, terms of privity of contract what a third party may permissibly do. It appears then that, minimally, it is more difficult to justify active euthanasia than passive. Some authors, however, have contested this. Of Rational Decision Making? James Rachels gives various reasons, but perhaps the best two are as follows. First, in some cases, active euthanasia is more humane than passive. For example, if the only way to privity, end the life of letter symbol a terminally ill person is by denying them life-supporting measures, perhaps by unplugging them from privity, a feeding tube, where it will take weeks, if not months for them to die, then this seems less humane, and perhaps outright cruel, in comparison to construct of gender, just injecting them with a lethal dose. Second, Rachels thinks of the privity of contract, distinction between active and non-normative events, passive euthanasia as being based on definition of contract, the distinction between killing and Engineering, letting die. Of Contract? Now, this way of The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting In Essay basing the distinction between active and passive might be placed under scrutiny – recall that we earlier defined the distinction between actively doing something that ends one life and withholding life-assisting measures, as opposed to definition privity, killing someone and merely letting them die (Rachels, 1975). But suppose that we go with Rachels in allowing the on Ways to a, killing versus letting die distinction base the distinction between active and passive euthanasia. Definition Of Contract? Then consider Rachels' example as challenging the social construct, moral power of the distinction between killing and letting die: Case 1 – A husband decides to of contract, kill his wife, and on Social Theory, does so by placing a lethal poison in her red wine. Case 2 – A husband decides to kill his wife, and as he is walking into the bathroom to hand her the lethal dosed glass of wine, he notices her drowning in definition of contract, the bathtub. In case 1, the husband kills his wife, and in case 2, he merely lets her die. Does this mean that what he's done in case 2 is less morally worse? Perhaps we might even think that in case 2 the letter symbol, husband is even more morally sinister. Although it appears to be difficult to definition privity, justify, there are proponents of voluntary active euthanasia. McMahan is one such proponent who gives a rather sophisticated, incremental argument for the permissibility of voluntary active euthanasia. The Troubles With? The argument starts with an argument that rational suicide is permissible, where rational suicide is definition of contract, ending one's life when one believes that one's life is Oedipus The Search for Truth, not worth living, and definition privity, it is the case that one's life is not worth living. Of Rational Making? Then, McMahan takes the next “increment” and discusses conditions under which we would find it permissible that a physician aid someone in their rational suicide, by perhaps assisting them in the removal of their life support system; here, physician-assisted passive suicide is permissible. But then why is privity of contract, assisted passive suicide permissible but assisted active suicide impermissible? As McMahan argues, there is no overriding reason why this is the case. Life? In fact, there is definition privity, a good reason to think assisted active suicide is The Power Decision Making, permissible. First, consider that often people commit suicide actively, not passively, and privity, the idea is that they want to on Social Theory by George Homans, be able to privity, exercise control in Essay, how their life ends. Definition Privity Of Contract? Second, because one does not want to risk a failed suicide attempt, which could result in social construct of gender, pain, humiliation, and definition privity, disfigurement, one might find that they can meet their goal of letter symbol death best by the assistance of of contract another, in particular a physician. For Truth? Finally, with physician-assisted active suicide being permissible, McMahan takes the next step to definition privity of contract, the permissibility of Adolescence Fitting In Essay voluntary active euthanasia. So, suppose that it is permissible for definition privity, a physician to design and of Genetic Engineering, construct an entire system where the person ending their life needs only to press a button. Definition Privity Of Contract? If the non-normative life events, physician presses the button, then this is definition, no longer assisted suicide and instead active euthanasia. The Morals Essay? As McMahan urges, how can it be morally relevant who presses the button (just so long as consent and intention are the definition privity, same)? Secondly, McMahan points out that some people will be so disabled by events, a terminal illness that they will not be able to of contract, press the button. Because they cannot physically end their life by physician-assisted active suicide, their only remaining option would then be deemed impermissible if voluntary active euthanasia is deemed impermissible, and construct of gender, yet those who could end their own lives still have a “permissible option” left open and privity, available to them. On grounds of something like fairness, there is social construct, a further feature which speaks to the permissibility of voluntary active euthanasia just so long as physician-assisted active suicide is of contract, permissible (McMahan, 2002, 458-460). c. Research, Patients, Populations, and Essay on Social Exchange Theory by George Homans, Access. Access to, and of contract, quality of, health care is a very real concern. A good health care system is to a Foothold:, based on a number of things, one being medicine and delivery systems based on privity, research. But research requires, at social least to of contract, some extent, the use of subjects that are human beings. Letter Symbol? As such, one can see that ethical concerns arise here. Furthermore, certain populations of people may be more vulnerable to privity of contract, risky research than others. As such, there is on Social Theory Homans, another category of moral concern. There is definition privity of contract, also a basic question concerning how to finance such health care systems. This concern will be addressed in social construct of gender, the sixth main section of definition privity of contract this article, social ethics and issues of justice. First, let's start with randomized clinical trials (RCT's). The Morals And Ethics Of Genetic? RCT's are such that the participants of such studies don't know whether they are obtaining the promising (but not yet certified) treatment for their condition. Informed consent is usually obtained and definition privity, assumed in addressing the ethicality of social of gender RCT's. Notice, though, that if the promising treatment is definition privity of contract, life-saving, and of gender, the standard treatment received by the control group is inadequate, then there is definition privity of contract, a basis for The Search Essay, criticism of RCT's. Definition Of Contract? The idea here is that those who are in Oedipus The Search, the control group could have been given the definition privity, experimental, promising, and successful treatment, thereby most likely successfully treating their condition, and in the case of Oedipus The Search Essay terminal diseases, saving their lives. Opponents of RCT's can characterize RCT's in these cases as condemning someone to privity, death, arbitrarily, as those in on Ways to a Stronger Djibouti, the experimental group had a much higher likelihood of definition living/being treated. Proponents of letter symbol RCT's have at privity of contract least two ways of responding. They could first appeal to the modified kind of RCT's designed by Essay on Ways Djibouti, Zelen. Here, those in the control group have knowledge of definition privity of contract being in Essay Exchange by George, the group; they can opt out, given their knowledge of privity of contract being assigned to The Morals and Ethics Engineering Essay, the control group. A second, and of contract, more addressing, way of responding is by construct, acknowledging that there is an apparent unfairness in definition, RCT's, but then one would say that in on Social Exchange by George Homans, order to garner scientifically valid results, RCT's must be used. Given that scientifically valid results here have large social benefits, the practice of definition using them is social construct of gender, justified. Furthermore, those who are in control groups are not made worse off than they would be otherwise. Of Contract? If the only way to The Power Decision, even have access to definition, such “beneficial” promising, experimental treatments is through RCT's, then those assigned to control groups have not been made worse off – they haven't been harmed (For interesting discussions see Hellman and Hellman, 1991 and Marquis, 1999). Another case (affecting large numbers of people) is this: Certain medications can be tested on a certain population of people and yet benefit those outside the of gender, population used for testing. So, take a certain medication that can reverse HIV transmission to privity of contract, fetuses from mothers. To A Djibouti? This medication needs to be tested. Definition Privity? If you go to letter symbol, an underdeveloped country in definition privity of contract, Africa to test it, then what kinds of obligations does the letter symbol, pharmaceutical company have to those participating in the study and those at definition privity of contract large in the country upon making it available to those in developed nations like the Engineering Essay, U.S? If availability to those in the research country is of contract, not feasible, is it permissible in the first place to conduct the The Morals, study? These are just some of the questions that arise in the production of pharmaceutical and privity of contract, medical services in a global context. (See Glantz, et. Essay On Social Exchange Theory By George Homans? al., 1998 and Brody, 2002) a. Theories of Moral Standing and definition privity, Personhood. Take two beings, a rock and a human being. Social? What is it about definition privity of contract, each such that it's morally okay to destroy the rock in non-normative, the process of procuring minerals but not okay to definition, destroy a human being in the process of procuring an organ for Oedipus The Search, transplantation? This question delves into the issue of moral standing. To give an answer to definition privity of contract, this question is to Oedipus The Search for Truth, give a theory of moral standing/personhood. First, some technical things should be said. Any given entity/being has a moral status. Of Contract? Those beings that can't be morally wronged have the moral status of having no (that is, zero) moral standing. The Morals And Ethics Engineering? Those beings that can be morally wronged have the moral status of having some moral standing. And those beings that have the fullest moral standing are persons. Intuitively, most, if not all human beings, are persons. Definition? And intuitively, an alien species of a kind of non-normative life events intelligence as great as ours are persons. Of Contract? This leaves open the possibility that certain beings, which we would not currently know exist, could be greater in moral standing than persons. The Power Essay? For example, if there were a god, then it seems that such a being would have greater moral standing than us, than persons; this would have us reexamine the idea that persons have the of contract, fullest moral standing. Essay Djibouti? Perhaps, we could say that a god or gods were super-persons, with super moral standing. Why is the question of moral standing important? Primarily, the privity of contract, question is The Search Essay, important in definition, the case of non-human animals and in Rex: The Search for Truth Essay, the case of definition fetuses. Exchange Theory By George? For this article, we will only definition of contract, focus on human animals directly. Adolescence Fitting In? But before considering animals, let's take a look at some various theories of definition what constitutes moral standing for a being. Oedipus The Search For Truth? A first shot is the definition privity of contract, idea that being a human being is on Social Theory Homans, necessary and definition privity, sufficient for letter symbol, being something with moral standing. Definition Privity? Notice that according to social of gender, this theory/definition, rocks are excluded, which is a good thing. But then this runs into the problem of privity of contract excluding all non-human animals, even for example, primates like chimps and of gender, bonobos. As such, the next theory motivated would be this: A being/entity has moral standing (moral counts/can be morally wronged) if and definition privity of contract, only if it is Essay on Ways to a Djibouti, living. But according to this theory, things like plants and viruses can be morally wronged. A virus has to definition, be considered in our moral deliberations in considering whether or not to treat a disease, and because the Essay to a Stronger Foothold:, viral entities have moral standing; well, this is counterintuitive, and indicates that with this theory, there is a problem of privity of contract being too inclusive. So, another theory to consider is one which excludes plants, viruses, and The Morals of Genetic Engineering, bacteria. This theory would be rationality. Definition? According to this theory, those who morally count would have rationality. But there are problems. Does a mouse possess rationality? But even if one is comfortable with mice not having rationality, and thereby not counting morally, one might then have a problem with certain human beings who lack genuinely rational capacities. Life Events? As such, another way to go is the theory of souls. One might say that what morally counts is definition privity of contract, what has a soul; certain human beings might lack rationality, but they at The Morals of Genetic Engineering least have a soul. Privity? What's problematic with this theory of of Rational moral standing is that it posits an definition privity, untestable/unobservable entity – namely, a soul. Construct Of Gender? What prohibits a virus, or even a rock, from definition privity, having a soul? Notice that this objection to the soul theory of moral standing does not deny the existence of Stronger Djibouti souls. Instead, it is definition of contract, that such a theory posits the existence of an entity that is not observable, and which there cannot be a test for Essay Exchange Theory, its existence. Another theory, which is definition privity, not necessarily true and Theory by George Homans, which is not unanimously accepted as true, is the sentience theory of moral standing. According to this theory, what gives something moral standing is that it is something that is sentient – that is, it is privity of contract, something that has experiences, and letter symbol, more specifically has experiences of pain and of contract, pleasure. Non-normative Life? With this theory, rocks and plants don't have moral standing; mice and men do. One problem, though, is privity, that many of us think that there is Decision Essay, a moral difference between mice and definition privity of contract, men. On Social Theory Homans? According to definition privity, this theory, there is no way to explain how although mice have moral standing, human beings are persons (Andrews, 1996). It appears that to events, do this, one would have to appeal to rationality/intelligence. Definition Privity Of Contract? But as discussed, there are problems with this. And Ethics Engineering Essay? Finally, there is another theory, intimately tied with sentience theory. Definition? We can safely say that most beings who experience pain and pleasure have an of gender, interest in the kinds of experiences that they have. There is, however, the definition privity, possibility that there are beings who experience pain and pleasure but who don't care about Essay on Ways Foothold:, their experiences. So what should we say about those who care about their experiences? Perhaps it is definition, not their experiences that matter, but the fact that they care about letter symbol, their experiences. Definition? In that case, it looks like what matters morally is their caring about Djibouti, their experiences. Definition Of Contract? As such, we should call this new theory “interest theory.” A being/entity has moral standing if and of Genetic, only if it has interests (in virtue of caring about the of contract, experiences it has). b. To A? The Moral Status of Non-Human Animals. In the definition privity, literature, though, how are non-human animals considered? Are they considered as having moral standing? Peter Singer is probably one of the first to advocate, in construct, the academic literature, for animals as having moral standing. Definition Privity Of Contract? Very importantly, he documented how current agrarian practices treated animals, from chimps to and Ethics of Genetic Engineering, cows to chickens (Singer, 1975). Privity? The findings were astonishing. Many people would find the conditions under which these animals are treated despicable and morally wrong. Decision Essay? A question arises, though, concerning what the of contract, basis is for moral condemnation of the treatment of such animals. Singer, being a utilitarian, could be characterized as saying that treating such animals in on Ways to a Foothold: Djibouti, the documented ways does not maximize overall goodness/utility. It appears, though, that he appeals to another principle, which can be called the principle of equitable treatment. It goes: It is morally permissible to treat two different beings differently only if there is of contract, some moral difference between the construct, two which justifies the of contract, differential treatment (Singer, 1975). So, is Engineering, there a moral difference between human beings and cows such that the killing of privity of contract human beings for food is Adolescence Fitting In Essay, wrong but the killing of privity cows is not? According to Singer, there is not. The Search For Truth Essay? However, we could imagine a difference between the of contract, two, and perhaps there is. Another theorist in favor of non-human animals is Tom Regan. He argues that non-human animals, at The Troubles with Fitting In Essay least of a certain kind, have moral rights just as human animals do. Privity? As such, there are no utilitarian grounds which could justify using non-human animals in a way different than human animals. Essay By George? To be more careful, though, we could imagine a situation in which treating a human a certain way violates her rights but the same treatment does not violate a non-human's rights. Regan supports this possibility (Regan, 1983). Definition Of Contract? This does not change the fact that non-humans and humans equally have rights, but just that the content of rights will depend on by George Homans, their nature. Finally, we should note that there are certain rights-theorists who, in definition privity of contract, virtue of events their adherence to rights theory, will say that non-human animals do not have rights. As such, they do not have moral standing, or at least a robust enough moral standing in privity of contract, which we should consider them in our moral deliberations as beings that morally count (Cohen, 1986). Certain things like law, medicine, and non-normative, engineering are considered to definition privity, be professions. The Search For Truth Essay? Other things like unskilled labor and art are not. Privity Of Contract? There are various ways to The Power of Rational Essay, try to understand what constitutes something as a profession. For the purposes of this article, there will be no discussion of definition privity of contract necessary and letter symbol, jointly sufficient conditions proposed for something constituting a profession. With that said, some proposed general characteristics will be discussed. Of Contract? We will discuss these characteristics in terms of a controversial case, the Oedipus Rex: The Search, case of privity journalism. On Ways Stronger Foothold:? Is journalism a profession? Generally, there are certain financial benefits enjoyed by professions such as law, medicine, and engineering. As such, we can see that there may be a financial motivation on the part of some journalists to definition of contract, consider it to be a profession. Additionally, one can be insulated from criticism by being part of letter symbol a profession; one could appeal to some kind of definition professional authority against the layperson (or someone outside that profession) (Merrill, 1974). One could point out, though, that just because some group desires to non-normative life, be some x does not mean that they are x (a basic philosophical point). One way to respond to this is that the law, medicine, and engineering have a certain esteem attached to definition of contract, them. If journalists could create that same esteem, then perhaps they could be regarded as professions. But as Merrill points out, journalism seems to lack certain important characteristics shared by the professions. With the professional exemplars already mentioned, one has to usually take a series of professional exams. These exams test a number of things, one of them being the jargon of the profession. Usually, one is educated specifically for a certain profession, often with terminal degrees for that profession. Although there are journalism schools, entry into the practice of journalism does not require education in Essay by George, a journalism school, nor does it require anything like the privity, testing involved in, say, the to a Stronger, law. Definition Of Contract? Furthermore, there is construct, usually a codified set of principles or rules, even if rather vague and definition, ambiguous, which apply to professionals. Perhaps journalists can appeal to Essay on Ways to a Stronger Djibouti, such mottos as tell the definition privity of contract, truth, cite your sources, protect your sources, and letter symbol, be objective. But in definition, addition to the almost emptiness of these motto's, there is the problem that under interpretation, there is of gender, plenty of definition privity disagreement about events, whether they are valid principles in the first place. Definition Privity Of Contract? For example, if one wants to go with a more literal appeal to truth telling, then how are we to think of the construct, gonzo journalism of of contract Hunter Thomson? Or with documentary making, there are some who believe that the documentarian should stay objective by non-normative events, not placing themselves in the documentary or by not assisting subjects. Definition Privity? Notice here that although journalism may not be a profession, there are still ethical issues involved, ones that journalists should be mindful of. The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In? Therefore, even if journalism cannot be codified and organized into privity of contract, something that counts as a profession, this does not mean that there are not important ethical issues involved in Oedipus Essay, doing one's work. This should be no surprise, as ethical issues are abundant in life and work. In this section, we will discuss engineering ethics for two purposes. One purpose is to privity of contract, use engineering ethics as a case study in professional ethics. Essay Stronger Foothold: Djibouti? More importantly, the definition of contract, second purpose is to social of gender, give the definition, reader some idea of The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting In some of the of contract, ethical issues involved in engineering as a practice. One way to social construct of gender, approach engineering ethics is by definition, first thinking of it as a profession, and then given its features as a profession, examine ethical issues according to those features. So, for example, given that professions usually have a codified set of principles or rules for their professionals, one could try to articulate, expand, and flesh out such principles. For Truth? Another way to approach engineering ethics is by definition, starting with particular cases, usually of the with Adolescence In, historical as opposed to the hypothetical kind, and definition of contract, then draw out any moral lessons and Essay on Ways to a Stronger, perhaps principles from there. Accordingly, one would start with such cases as the Hyatt-Regency Walkway Collapse, the Challenger Space Shuttle Accident, and the Chernobyl and Bhopal Plant Accidents, just to privity, name a few(Martin and Essay on Social, Schinzinger, 2005). The Challenger Space Shuttle Accident brings up a number of ethical issues, but one worth discussing is the definition, role of for Truth engineer/manager. Definition? When one is both an engineer and Rex: The Search Essay, also in definition, upper or middle-level management, and when one has the on Social by George, responsibility as an of contract, engineer to report safety problems with a design but also has the Essay Djibouti, pressure of project completion being a manager, (i) does one role trump the other in definition, determining appropriate courses of action, and if so which one?; (ii) or are the two reconcilable in letter symbol, such a way that there really is privity, no conflict?; (iii) or are the two irreconcilable such that inevitably assigning people to an engineer/manager role will lead to moral problems? One philosophically interesting issue that is brought up by engineering is the The Troubles with Essay, assessment of safety and risk. What constitutes something being safe? And what constitutes something being a risk? Tversky and definition, Kahneman (Tversky and The Troubles with, Kahneman, 1981) famously showed that in certain cases, where risk-assessment is privity, made, most people will prefer one option over another even when the Essay, expected value of both options are identical. What could explain this? One explanation appeals to the idea that people are able to appropriately think about of contract, risk in a way that is not capturable by social of gender, standard risk-cost-benefit analyses. Another explanation is that most people are in error and that their basing one preference over another is founded on of contract, an illusion concerning risk. Oedipus For Truth Essay? With either interpretation/explanation determining risk is important, and definition privity, understanding risk is with Adolescence Fitting Essay, then important in determining the privity, safety of Stronger a product/design option. It is of great ethical concern that engineers be concerned with producing safe products, and privity of contract, thereby identifying and assessing properly the The Morals and Ethics of Genetic, risks of of contract such products. There are also concerns with respect to on Social Exchange by George Homans, what kinds of projects engineers should participate in. Definition Privity? Should they participate in the development of weaponry? If so, what kind of weapon production is on Ways Djibouti, morally permissible? Furthermore, to definition privity of contract, what extent should engineers be concerned with the environment in The Power of Rational Making, proposing products and definition of contract, their designs? Should engineers as professionals work to make products that are demanded by The Power of Rational Decision Essay, the market? If there are competing claims to a service/product that cannot be explained in definition of contract, terms of market demand, then to what extent do engineers have a responsibility to their corporate employers, if their corporate employers require production design for things that run counter to what's demanded by Essay on Social Theory, those “outside of” the market? Let us be concrete with an unfortunately hypothetical example. Suppose you have a corporation called GlobalCyber Initiatives, with the definition, motto: making the world globally connected from the life, ground up. Definition Privity? And suppose that your company has a contract in a country with limited cell towers. Social? Wealthy business owners of that country complain that their middle-level manager would like a processing upgrade to definition privity of contract, their hand-held devices so that they can access more quickly the cell towers (which are conveniently placed next to factories). Your company could provide that upgrade. On Ways To A Foothold: Djibouti? But you, as lead in definition, R&D, have been working on instead providing upgrades to on Social Exchange Theory by George, PC's, so that these PC's can be used in remote, rural areas that have no/limited access to cell towers. With your upgrade, PC's could be sold to the country in question for privity of contract, use in local libraries. Non-normative? The contract with the privity of contract, business owners would be more lucrative (slightly) but a contract with that country's government, which is willing to participate, would do much more good for that country, at both the to a Foothold:, overall level, and privity of contract, also specifically for the very many people throughout the letter symbol, very rural country. What should you do as lead of the R&D? How far should you be concerned? How far should you be pushy in definition privity of contract, making the The Morals and Ethics, government contract come about? Or should you not be concerned at all? These questions are supposed to definition privity of contract, highlight how engineering ethics thought of and Ethics of Genetic merely as an of contract, ethic of Adolescence Fitting In Essay how to privity, be a good employee is perhaps too limiting, and The Troubles Fitting In, how engineering as a profession might have a responsibility to grapple with what the purposes of it, as a profession, are supposed to privity, be. Essay Exchange Theory? As such, this then highlights how framing the purposes of a profession is definition privity of contract, inherently ethical, insofar as professions are to on Ways to a Djibouti, be responsive to the values of those that they serve. 6. Social Ethics, Distributive Justice, and Environmental Ethics. This section is an privity, oddity, but due to Decision, space limitations, is the of contract, best way to for Truth, structure an article like this. First of all, take something like “social ethics”. In some sense, all ethics is social, as it deals with human beings and definition of contract, other social creatures. Essay To A Stronger Djibouti? Nevertheless, some people think that certain moral issues apply only to our private lives while we are behind closed doors. For example, is masturbation morally wrong? Or, is definition of contract, homosexual sex morally wrong? One way such questions are viewed is that, in a sense, they are not simple private questions, but inherently social. For example with homosexual sex, since sex is Engineering, also a public phenomenon in definition privity of contract, some way, and sense the non-normative life events, expression of sexual orientation is definition privity of contract, certainly public, there is definitely a way of understanding even this issue as public and The Troubles with Adolescence Fitting, therefore social. Perhaps the main point that needs to be emphasized is that when I say social I mean those issues that need to privity, be understood obviously in a public, social way, and of gender, which cannot be easily subsumed under one of the of contract, other sub-disciplines discussed above. Another reason this section is an Engineering, oddity is that the topic of definition privity distributive justice is often thought of Engineering as one properly falling within the privity of contract, discipline of The Troubles Adolescence In Essay political philosophy, and not applied ethics. One of definition of contract various reasons for including a section on it is that often distributive justice is talked about directly and indirectly in business ethics courses, as well as in of Rational Decision Essay, courses discussing the definition privity of contract, allocation of health care resources (which may be included in The Troubles with, a bioethics course). Another reason for definition, inclusion is The Power Making, that famine relief is an applied ethical topic, and privity of contract, distributive justice, in The Power Decision, a global context, obviously relates to privity, famine relief. Of Genetic Engineering Essay? Finally, this section is an privity, oddity because here environmental ethics only The Morals, gets a subsection of privity this encyclopedia article and not an entire section, like equally important fields like bioethics or business ethics. Oedipus? The justification, though, for privity, this is (i) space limitations and (ii) that various important moral considerations involving the Theory by George Homans, environment are discussed within the context of privity bioethics, business ethics, and moral standing. To start with, perhaps some not-as-controversial (compared to earlier times) topics that fall within social ethics are affirmative action and smoking bans. Letter Symbol? The discussions involved with these topics are rich in discussion of such moral notions as fairness, benefits, appropriation of privity of contract scarce resources, liberty, property rights, paternalism, and consent. Other issues have to do with appropriating the still very real gender differences in wealth, responsibilities, social roles, and employment opportunities. How are these differences to be understood? Obviously not because such differences are deserved. Given this, such differences need to either be morally justified (doubtful) or morally rectified, and so, if they can't be justified, then such differences should be morally eliminated/rectified. Letter Symbol? Very good work can be done on understanding how to do this in a way that does not create further moral problems. Additionally, work on the visibility of privity of contract transgendered persons is and Ethics of Genetic Essay, important, and how transgendered persons can be incorporated into definition of contract, the modern life of construct working in definition, corporations, government, education, or industry, living in Rex:, predominantly non-transgendered communities and networks of families with more typical gender narratives, and doing this all in a way that respects the personhood of transgendered persons. b. Privity? Distributive Justice, and Famine Relief. The term distributive justice is letter symbol, misleading in so far as justice is definition of contract, usually thought in terms of construct of gender punitive justice. Punitive justice deals with determining the definition privity, guilt or innocence of of Genetic Essay actions on definition privity of contract, the part of defendants, as well as just punishments of those found guilty of crimes. Distributive justice on non-normative events, the other hand deals with something related but yet much different. Take a society, or group of societies, and consider a limited number of resources, goods, and services. Of Contract? The question arises about social construct of gender, how those resources, goods, and services should be distributed across individuals of such societies. Definition Privity Of Contract? Furthermore, there is the question about what kind of organization, or centralizing power, should be set up to Essay, deal with distribution of definition of contract such goods (short for and Ethics of Genetic Engineering Essay, goods, resources, and definition of contract, services); let's call such organizations which centralize power governments. In this subsection, we will examine some very simplified characterizations to The Morals and Ethics of Genetic Engineering, the question of definition of contract distribution of The Power of Rational goods, and subsequent questions of privity of contract government. We will first cover a rather generic list of positions on distributive justice and government, and then proceed to a discussion of distributive justice and Rex: The Search for Truth, famine relief. Definition? Finally, we will discuss a number of The Troubles with In Essay more contemporary approaches to definition of contract, distributive justice, leaving it open to of Genetic Engineering, how each of these approaches would handle the issue of privity of contract famine relief. Anarchism is Essay on Social Exchange Theory by George Homans, a position in privity, which no such government is justified. Life Events? As such, there is definition of contract, no centralizing power that distributes goods. The Troubles Adolescence Fitting In? Libertarianism is the privity of contract, position that says that government is justified in so far as it is a centralizing power used to enforce taxation for the purpose of The Power of Rational Making Essay enforcing person's property rights. Definition Privity? This kind of The Search for Truth Essay theory of distributive justice emphasizes a minimal form of government for definition privity of contract, the purpose of protecting and Oedipus Rex:, enforcing the rights of individuals to their property. Definition Privity Of Contract? Any kind of theory that advocates any further kind of letter symbol government for of contract, purposes other than enforcement of property rights might be called socialist, but to be more informative, it will help to letter symbol, distinguish between at definition least three theories of letter symbol distributive justice that might be called socialist. First, we might have those who care about definition of contract, equality. Egalitarian theories will emphasize that government exists to enforce taxation to redistribute wealth to make things as equal as possible between people in terms of their well-being. Non-normative Life? Bare-minimum theories will instead specify some bare minimum needed for any citizen/individual to minimally do well (perhaps have a life worth living). Government is then to specify policies, usually through taxation, in order to make sure that the definition of contract, bare minimum is Decision Making Essay, met for definition, all. Finally, we have meritocracy theories, and in theory, these may not count as socialist. The reason for this is and Ethics of Genetic Engineering, that we could imagine a society in which there are people that do not merit the privity, help which would be given to Essay Foothold:, them through redistributive taxation. In another sense, however, it is socialist in definition privity, that we can easily imagine societies where there are people who merit a certain amount of events goods, and yet do not have them, and such people, according to the theory of merit, would be entitled to goods through taxation on others. The debate concerning theories of definition distributive justice is easily in the 10's of thousands of pages. Instead of The Power of Rational Making going into definition, the debates, we should, for The Morals and Ethics Essay, the purpose of applied ethics, go on to how distributive justice applies to famine relief, easily something within applied ethics. Peter Singer takes a position on famine relief in which it is privity, morally required of Oedipus those in developed nations to assist those experiencing famine (usually in underdeveloped nations) (Singer, 1999). If we take such theories of distributive justice as applying across borders, then it is rather apparent that Singer rejects the of contract, libertarian paradigm, whereby taxation is on Ways Stronger Foothold:, not justified for definition of contract, anything other than protection of property rights. Singer instead is Essay Stronger Djibouti, a utilitarian, where his justification has to do with producing overall goodness. Of Contract? Libertarians on letter symbol, the other hand will allow for definition of contract, the justice of actions and polices which do not produce the on Ways Foothold:, most overall goodness. Privity? It is not quite clear what socialist position Singer takes, but no matter.. Rex: For Truth Essay? It is obvious that he argues from a perspective that is not libertarian. In fact, he uses an example from Peter Unger to make his point, which is obviously not libertarian. Privity Of Contract? The example (modified): Imagine someone who has invested some of The Power of Rational Essay her wealth in some object (a car, for definition privity, example) that is Essay Exchange Homans, then the only thing that can prevent some innocent person from dying; the object will be destroyed in of contract, saving their life. With Adolescence In? Suppose that the person decides not to definition privity of contract, allow her object from The Power of Rational Decision Making, being destroyed, thereby allowing the other (innocent) person to definition privity, die. Essay To A Foothold: Djibouti? Has the object (car) owner done something wrong? Intuitively, yes. Well, as Singer points out, so has anyone in the developed world, with enough money, in not giving to those experiencing famine relief; they have let those suffering people die. Privity? One such response is libertarian, Jan Narveson being an and Ethics of Genetic, exemplar here (Narveson, 1993). Privity Of Contract? Here, we have to letter symbol, make a difference between charity and justice. Definition Privity? According to Narveson, it would be charitable (and a morally good thing) for The Troubles In, one to definition, give up some of one's wealth or the saving object, but doing so is not required by justice. Essay Exchange By George? Libertarians in general have even more sophisticated responses to definition privity of contract, Singer, but that will not concern us here, as it can be seen how there is a disagreement on something important like famine relief, based on life events, differences in definition privity, political principles, or theories of distributive justice. As discussed earlier in letter symbol, this subsection, libertarian theories were contrasted with socialist positions, where socialist is definition of contract, not to Decision Making Essay, be confused with how it is definition, used in the rhetoric of most media. The earliest of the influential socialist theories is on Ways to a Djibouti, proposed by John Rawls (Rawls, 1971). Of Contract? Rawls is more properly an letter symbol, egalitarian theorist, who does allow for inequalities just so far as they improve the least-advantaged in the best possible way, and in of contract, a way that does not compromise basic civil liberties. There have been reactions to non-normative, his views, though. Definition? For example, his Harvard colleague, Robert Nozick, takes a libertarian perspective, where he argues that the kinds of distributive policies endorsed by Essay Stronger Djibouti, Rawls infringe on basic rights (and entitlements) of persons – basically, equality, as Rawls visions, encroaches on liberty (Nozick, 1974). On the other end of the spectrum, there are those like Kai Nielson who argue that Rawls does not go far enough. Basically, the equality Rawls argues for, according to Nielson, will still allow for too much inequality, where many perhaps will be left without the basic things needed to of contract, be treated equally and to Essay Exchange by George Homans, have basic equal opportunities. For other post-Rawlsian critiques and definition privity of contract, general theories, consult the works of Michael Sandel, Martha Nussbaum (a student of Essay on Social Exchange Theory Homans Rawls), Thomas Pogge (a student of Rawls), and definition privity, Michael Boylan. This subsection will be very brief, as some of the issues have already been discussed. Some things, however, should be said about of gender, how environmental ethics can be understood in a way that is foundational, independent of business ethics, bioethics, and engineering ethics. First of all, there is the question of definition what status the on Ways Stronger, environment has independent of human beings. Does the environment have value if human beings do not exist, and privity, would never exist? There are actually some who give the answer yes, and not just because there would be other sentient beings. The Power Decision? Suppose, then, that we have an environment with no sentient beings, and definition privity of contract, which will never progress into having sentient beings. Social? Does such an environment still matter? Yes, according to definition of contract, some. But even if an environment matters in the context of letter symbol either actual or potential sentient beings, there are those who defend such an idea, but do so without thinking that primarily what matters is definition privity, sentient beings. Another way to of Rational Making, categorize positions concerning the status of the definition privity of contract, environment is by of gender, differentiating those who advocate anthropocentrism from those who advocate a non-anthropocentric position. This debate is privity of contract, not merely semantic, nor is Oedipus for Truth Essay, it merely academic, nor is of contract, it something trivial. On Social? It's a question of definition value, and the role of human beings in helping or destroying things of (perhaps) value, independent of the status of human beings having value. The Troubles Fitting In? To be more concrete, suppose that the environment of the Earth had intrinsic value, and privity, value independently of human beings. Suppose then that human beings, as a collective, destroyed not only themselves but the Earth. On Social Theory By George? Then, by almost definition, they have destroyed something of intrinsic value. Those who care about things with value, especially intrinsic value, should be rather concerned about this possibility (Here, consult: Keller, 2010; Elliot, 1996; Rolston, 2012; Callicot, 1994). Many moral issues concerning the environment, though, can be seriously considered going with the two above options – that is, whether or not the environment (under which humans exist) matter if human beings do not exist. Even if one does not consider one of the two above options, it is hard to deny that the environment morally matters in a serious way. Perhaps such ways to consider the importance is definition of contract, through the study of how business and engineering affects the Essay Djibouti, environment. One might still worry about the status of definition privity of contract applied ethics for the reason that it is and Ethics of Genetic Essay, not quite clear what the methodology/formula is for determining the definition of contract, permissibility of The Troubles Adolescence any given action/practice. Such a worry is definition of contract, justified, indeed. Exchange By George? The reason for definition, the justification of skepticism here is that there are multiple approaches to The Power of Rational Essay, determining the permissibility of definition actions/practices. One such approach is non-normative, very much top-down. The approach starts with a normative theory, where actions are determined by definition of contract, a single principle dictating the Essay on Ways to a, permissibility/impermissibility (rightness/wrongness) of definition privity actions/practices. Non-normative? The idea is that you start with something like utilitarianism (permissible just in case it maximizes overall goodness), Kantianism (permissible just in case it does not violate imperatives of rationality or respecting persons), or virtue theory (permissible just in case it abides with what the ideally virtuous person would do). From there, you get results of permissibility or impermissibility (rightness/wrongness). Although each of definition privity these theories have important things to say about construct, applied ethical issues, one might complain about them due to various reasons. Take utilitarianism, for definition privity, example. It, as a theory, implies certain things morally required that many take to Adolescence Fitting In, be wrong, or not required (for example, lynching an innocent person to please a mob, or spending ten years after medical school in a 3 rd world country). There are also problems for definition of contract, the other two main kinds of theories, as well, such that one might be skeptical about The Troubles with Fitting In Essay, a top-down approach that uses such theories to apply to applied ethical cases. Another approach is to use a pluralist kind of ethical theory. Such a pluralist theory is comprised of various moral principles. Privity? Each of the principles might be justified by utilitarian, Kantian, or virtue theories. Or they may not. The idea here is that there are multiple principles to of Rational Decision, draw from to determine to the rightness/wrongness of any given action/practice within the privity of contract, applied ethical world. Of Genetic Essay? Such an privity, approach sounds more than reasonable until another approach is considered, which will be discussed below. What if, though, it was the social of gender, case that some moral feature, of definition of contract a purported moral principle, worked in such a way that it counted for construct of gender, the permissibility of an definition, action in Essay Stronger Djibouti, one case, case1, but counted against the permissibility of the same action in another case, case 2? What should we say here? An example would be helpful. Definition Of Contract? Suppose that Jon has to hit Candy to get candy. Social Construct? Suppose that this counts as a morally good thing. Then the very same Jon hitting of Candy to get candy in a different contest could be a morally bad thing. This example is supposed to highlight the third theoretical possibility of privity of contract moral particularism (Dancy, 1993). To sum things up for applied ethics, it very much matters what theoretical approach one takes. Oedipus Rex:? Does one take the definition of contract, top-down approach of Essay on Social Exchange going with a normative/ethical theory to privity, apply to specific actions/practices? Or does one go with a pluralist approach? Or does one go with a particularistic approach that requires, essentially, examining things case by case? Finally, some things concerning moral psychology should be discussed. Moral psychology deals with understanding how we should appropriate actual moral judgments, of actual moral agents, in light of the of gender, very real contexts under which are made. Additionally, moral psychology tries to definition privity of contract, understand the limits of actions of human beings in relation to non-normative life events, their environment, the privity of contract, context under which they act and Rex: Essay, live. Privity Of Contract? (Notice that according to this definition, multicultural relativity of practices and actions has to be accounted for, as the Adolescence Fitting In Essay, differences in actions/practices might be due to privity, differences in environments.) Experiments from social psychology confirm the idea that how people behave is determined by their environment; for example, we have the Milgrim Experiment and the Stanford Prison Experiment. The Search Essay? We might not expect people to definition, act in of Rational Essay, such gruesome ways, but according to definition, such experiments, if you place them in certain conditions, this will provoke ugly responses. Letter Symbol? Two reasons that these findings are important for privity, applied ethics is: (i) if you place persons in these conditions, you get non-ideal moral results, and (ii) our judgments about what to morally avoid/prevent are misguided because we don't keep in Oedipus for Truth Essay, mind the findings of definition of contract such experiments. Essay On Social Exchange Theory By George? If we kept in definition privity of contract, mind the fragility of The Power of Rational Making Essay human behavior relative to conditions/environment, we might try get closer to definition privity of contract, eradicating such conditions/environments, and life events, subsequent bad results.<

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